International economic organizations. Universal international economic organizations Major international economic organizations
The main permanent intergovernmental organization is the United Nations (founded in 1945). According to the charter UN is called upon to carry out international cooperation in order to resolve global economic problems (Article 1) "in order to create conditions for stability and prosperity", with the aim of "promoting higher living standards, economic development and progress in the world."
Economic cooperation is dealt with by the supreme body of the UN - the General Assembly and the ECOSOC (Economic and Social Council), which it leads.
General Assembly UN organizes research and gives recommendations to states to promote international cooperation in the economic, social and other sectors; The GA also exercises leadership in relation to ECOSOC.
The Economic and Social Council is called upon to solve specific problems of international economic cooperation. According to the UN Charter, the functions of ECOSOC include conducting various kinds of research and reports on international issues in the areas of: economic, social, culture, education, health care and similar issues.
Within the framework of the Council, draft international agreements and conventions are developed, which are subsequently submitted for approval to the General Assembly. The functions of ECOSOC also include the coordination of the activities of the UN specialized agencies, with which it concludes special agreements, as well as the leadership of the regional economic commissions.
The following regional economic commissions operate under the direction of the Economic and Social Council.
1. Economic commission for europe(Economic Commission for Europe) was created in 1947 for a period of five years to provide effective assistance to the devastated by World War II European countries... Then the term of this commission was extended indefinitely. The supreme body of the commission is plenary sessions (convened once a year). The permanent body of the Commission is the Secretariat, which has departments: plans and research, industrial, transport, trade and intermediary. The Commission has ten committees: for ferrous metallurgy; for coal; for electricity; on industry and inland transport; by labor force; on the housing issue; for the development of foreign trade, etc.
2. Economic Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP) was established in 1947 as a temporary organization. In 1952 the commission was reorganized into a permanent one. The supreme body of the Commission is the plenary sessions (convened once a year). The permanent body is the Secretariat, consisting of the departments of industry and trade, transport and communications, social affairs, research and plans. ESCAP has: Committee on Industry and Natural Resources, Committee on Inland Transport and Communications, Committee on Trade. With the participation of ESCAP, projects were developed for the construction of a trans-Asian railway and the construction of a trans-Asian highway through 15 countries.
3. Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA) was established in 1948, in 1951 it was transformed into a permanent commission. Its members are 20 Latin American states. The supreme and permanent bodies of the Commission are the plenary sessions and the Secretariat, respectively. The Secretariat has six divisions. With the participation of ECLA, the Latin American economic system(LNPP).
Economic Commission for Africa(ECA) was formed at the XXV session of ECOSOC (1958). Functions, supreme and permanent bodies are similar to other economic commissions. ECA has developed projects for the construction of trans-African, trans-Saharan and East African highways.
5. Economic Commission for Western Asia(ECZA) focused on the research form of activity, summarizing and forecasting trends and prospects for the development of individual countries in the region. In particular, it examines the practice of transnational corporations in the oil industry of the region.
An important subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly is International Trade Commission(UNISTRAL), which works to promote and unify the rights of international trade... In particular, she developed the Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, adopted at the UN conference in 1980.
One of the most significant UN bodies dealing with the problems of economic cooperation is United Nations Conference on Trade and Development(UNCTAD). It was established in 1964 as a subsidiary body of the UN General Assembly and has long since grown into an independent autonomous one. The supreme body of UNCTAD is the sessions of the conference (they meet once every three to four years). Between sessions, the conference works in the form of the Council for Trade and Development (meets twice a year). The Council has seven standing committees: on commodities; for industrial goods; by preferences; on invisible items and trade-related finance; for sea transportation; on Technology Transfer and Economic Cooperation of Developing Countries; and four working groups.
In the UNGA resolution, which established UNCTAD, its functions were formulated as follows:
1) the promotion of international trade, especially in terms of acceleration economic development, in particular trade between countries located on different levels development;
2) the establishment of principles and policies concerning international trade and related economic development issues;
4) consideration and facilitation of coordination of activities of other agencies within the UN system;
5) taking, if necessary, measures in cooperation with the competent UN bodies to negotiate and approve multilateral legal acts in the field of trade;
6) harmonization of the policy of governments and regional economic groupings in the field of trade;
7) consideration of any other issues within the competence.
The nature of UNCTAD's activities, its structure, universality, scope of competences, the nature of the adopted documents give every reason to consider it as a permanent international organization. The headquarters of the organization is located in Geneva.
United Nations Industrial Development Organization(UNIDO) was established in 1956 to promote the industrialization of developing countries. In 1985, it acquired the status of a UN specialized agency. The supreme body of UNIDO is the General Conference, which is convened every four years; governing body is Industrial Development Board, whose meetings are held once a year. The Council consists of 45 members, elected by the General Conference for a three-year term on the basis of equitable geographical representation. The Standing Committee is a subsidiary organ of the Council and meets twice a year. The Secretariat is the administrative body of UNIDO located in Vienna (Austria). The Secretary General of UNIDO, upon the recommendation of the Council, is approved by the General Conference for a period of four years. The governing bodies also include the Program and Budget Committee. An information bank for industry and technology has been operating since 1981.
The founding documents of the organization are the Lima Declaration and Plan of Action for Industrial Development and Cooperation, adopted in 1975. UNIDO develops recommendations and programs for governments of developing countries to provide technical assistance in the design and construction of facilities.
The establishment of equitable international economic cooperation in the field of science and technology should promote World organization intellectual property(WIPO), which aims to help developing countries establish national systems for the protection of industrial property and copyright.
Among monetary institutions of the United Nations stand out: International Monetary Fund (IMF);
■ International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD);
■ International Finance Corporation (IFC);
■ International Development Association (MAP).
All these organizations are intergovernmental in nature and have the status specialized agencies UN, i.e. The UN cannot provide them with policy advice and guidelines.
IMF and IBRD- the largest international monetary organizations - created on the basis of agreements adopted by the Bretton Woods Conference (USA) in 1944. Members of each organization are 184 states, including the Russian Federation.
The objectives of the IMF are to coordinate the monetary and financial policies of the member states and provide them with loans to settle the balance of payments and maintain exchange rates.
The main goal of the IBRD is to promote the reconstruction and development of the territories of the member states by encouraging capital investments for production purposes.
IFC(established in 1956 as a branch of the IBRD and has 176 member states) primarily finances multinational projects in which local and foreign capital participates, provides loans on concessional terms and without government guarantees.
MAP(established in 1960 as a branch of the IBRD, now it includes more than 160 countries) provides interest-free loans to developing countries on more favorable terms than the IBRD. The loan term for the least developed (according to the UN list) countries is 40 years, for the rest - 35 years.
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT) is the largest intergovernmental trade agreement. It was adopted in 1948 as a temporary agreement. Throughout history (1948-1994), its most important function has been to conduct multilateral rounds of trade negotiations. There were 8 such rounds in total. The last, Uruguay round ended in April 1994 with the signing of the Final Act, which consisted of an agreement establishing The World Trade Organization and a number of documents that together constituted the WTO system.
The supreme body of the WTO is Ministerial conference member states of the WTO. Its sessions are held at least once every two years. Between sessions, as necessary, the General Council of the WTO members is convened. It serves as the Dispute Settlement Body and Trade Review Mechanism.
politicians. The Ministerial Conference appoints a Director General who directs the WTO Secretariat. All decisions within the WTO are taken by consensus. The competence of the WTO includes:
■ International trade in industrial and agricultural goods;
■ trade in textiles and clothing;
■ international trade in services; ■ intellectual property;
■ trade-related investments;
■ special protective, anti-dumping and countervailing measures;
■ sanitary and phytosanitary measures;
■ rules of origin of goods;
■ import licensing, etc.
All multilateral agreements of the WTO are binding on the member states, the rest of the countries are forced to follow the rules and regulations developed in the GATT / WTO.
In modern international economic relations, a significant role belongs to universal associations that are not formally international organizations. These include, first of all, the Paris and London Clubs of Creditors.
Paris Club - an interstate mechanism created for the development of multilateral agreements by the creditor states in relation to the debtor states in order to revise the terms of debt repayment. Officially, it does not have a charter, admission rules and fixed structures.
The Russian Federation, being the successor of the USSR, in connection with its membership in the Club, got the opportunity to translate into a practical plane the sale of significant external assets, many of which were considered "hopeless".
London club was created with the aim of developing agreements with debtor countries on the payment of external debt and repayment of interbank debt. It unites 600 commercial lender banks from the leading countries of the world. It is headed by representatives of Deutsche Bank (Germany).
The growth of interdependence between countries, the collision in the world market of the interests of numerous subjects of the IEE, the emergence of global problems humanity have led to the need to regulate international relations the combined efforts of the countries of the world, i.e. at the multilateral level.
As a result, in the middle of the 20th century, a system of international regulation of world economic relations was formed, which is based on the norms of international law.
International regulation of the IEE is carried out within the framework of international economic organizations.
International organizations are an organizational form international cooperation which unites members from different countries.
International Organization - it is an organization established by a treaty of the member states, a subject of international law, having goals agreed upon by its participants, competent authorities, charter, membership order, and other attributes.
An international organization is created through the conclusion of an international treaty, which is the constituent document of the organization. The date of its signing is considered the date of creation of the organization. The termination of the existence of the organization occurs by signing a protocol of dissolution.
By joining one or another international organization, states lose the right to take actions that are within the competence of an international organization and are obliged to obey its decisions.
Only sovereign states are members of international organizations. They participate equally in the work of the organization and are responsible for its activities, make contributions, forming the budget of the organization. Incomplete (associated) membership is also possible, when the country does not have the right to vote and be elected to the executive bodies.
Non-member states may send their observers to participate in the work of the organization, if so stipulated by the rules.
The main phases of the organization's activities are discussion, decision-making and control over its implementation. Hence, there are three main types of functions of an international organization. :
1. Regulatory function consists in defining the goals, principles and rules of conduct of the member states, which are fixed in resolutions. These decisions (resolutions) of organizations are not binding (that is, they do not create international legal norms), but they have a significant impact on the formation of international law.
2. Control functions consist in exercising control over the conformity of the behavior of states with the norms of international law, as well as with resolutions. For this purpose, organizations have the right to collect and analyze relevant information, discuss it and express their opinion in resolutions. In many cases, states are obliged to regularly submit reports on their implementation of the organization's norms and acts in the relevant field.
3. Operational function is to achieve goals by the organization's own means. That is, they provide economic, scientific, technical, consulting and other assistance to member countries.
International organizations classify by a number of criteria:
- by the nature of membership and the legal nature of the participants
· Intergovernmental - an association of states, established on the basis of an international treaty to achieve common goals.
· Non-governmental - is created on the basis of an association of individuals or legal entities in the form of associations, federations and acts in the interests of members to achieve specific goals (unions of entrepreneurs, an international chamber of commerce, etc.).
- depending on the circle of participants
· Universal (universal) - designed for the participation of all states (UN and its specialized agencies, WTO);
· Limited composition - can be regional (CIS, Council of Europe, League of Arab States), or depending on another criterion (OECD - only industrialized countries participate, OPEC - countries for which the main export product is oil).
- depending on the nature of the competence
General competence - their activities cover all spheres of relations between countries: political, economic, social, cultural, etc. (UN, Council of Europe)
· Special competence - carry out cooperation in one area (Universal Postal Union, International Labor Organization, International atomic energy and etc.)
-by organizational basis
Included in the UN system (UNCTAD, IMF, WTO)
Non-UN members (OECD, ICC, M / N Energy Agency)
Regional economic organizations
- depending on the scope of international regulation, there are international organizations that regulate
· Economic and industrial cooperation and DOE sectors (UNDP - UN Development Program, World Trade Organization for Tourism, International Maritime Organization, etc.);
· The sphere of world trade (WTO, UNCTAD - UN conference on trade and development, IOC - international coffee organization, etc.);
· Monetary and financial relations (IMF, WB group, EBRD);
Cooperation in the field of intellectual property and scientific and technical cooperation (WIPO)
· Entrepreneurial activity (UN Commission on TNCs);
Cooperation in the field of certification and standardization of products (m / n organization for standardization - ISO)
The sphere of international investment
Cooperation in the field of international commercial practice
- according to the ratio of the scope of competence transferred by states to an international organization
· Intergovernmental organizations performing coordination functions in which the redistributed competence remains joint for the state and the organization;
· International organizations performing individual supranational functions, possessing exclusive competence on a number of issues and limiting the functions of member states in their solution. An example is the obligation to comply with the decisions of the IMF and the World Bank in the monetary sphere for member countries.
· Supranational organizations created to formulate rules binding on member states and mechanisms to control and enforce participants to comply with these rules. The supranational bodies of the European Union are endowed with similar functions: the European Council, the European Parliament, etc.
- according to the status
Formal
· Informal.
The leading role in the system of international economic organizations belongs to organizations belonging to the UN system.
UN - established in 1945. The UN includes 192 states. The headquarters is located in New York (USA).
UN goals:
Maintaining peace and security through collective action and the peaceful settlement of disputes
Development of friendly relations between countries based on respect for the principle of equality and self-determination of peoples
Implementation of m / n cooperation in resolving international problems of an economic, social, cultural and humanitarian nature, promoting respect for human rights without distinction of race, sex, language, religion;
Acting as a central body for coordinating the efforts of different countries aimed at achieving these goals.
UN principles:
Sovereign equality of all members
Settlement of m / n disputes by peaceful means
Assistance by UN members in all its activities.
The UN is a universal international organization, both in terms of membership and issues within its competence.
The UN system includes:
1) main and subsidiary bodies
2) specialized agencies and organizations
3) autonomous organizations
UN structure:
1. General Assembly - the main body of the UN. Consists of representatives from all member states. It determines the UN policy, its program, approves the budget, develops the main directions of activity. The Assembly meets in regular annual session from September to December and thereafter as required.
As part of the UN General Assembly, there are special bodies, the most significant of which are:
Ø In 1964. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) ... The headquarters is located in Geneva. It is designed to consider issues related to the participation of developing countries in international trade, issues of external debt, financing of development projects, transfer of new technologies to them. This organization pays significant attention to the least developed countries. UNCTAD publishes a number of internationally recognized studies (World Investment Report, etc.)
Ø United Nations Development Program (UNDP) - established in 1965, headquartered in New York, 166 countries participate. The main task is to assist countries in introducing knowledge and world development experience in order to improve socio-economic development. Prepares and publishes the Human Development Report annually.
Ø International Trade Law Commission (UNCITRAL - UN Commission on International Trade Law) - founded in 1966. for the purpose of harmonization and unification of legal norms in international trade.
Ø Other.
2. Security Council is primarily responsible for maintaining international peace and security; all members of the UN are obliged to obey its decisions. Five permanent members of the Security Council (RF, USA, Great Britain, France, China) have the right of veto (i.e. they can block any decision taken by the Council).
3. Economic and Social Council(ECOSOC)- carries out the functions of the UN in the field of economic, social, cultural and humanitarian international cooperation. ECOSOC includes:
5 regional commissions - Economic Commission for Europe (ECE), Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA), Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean pool (ECLAC). The objectives of the regional commissions are to study the economic and social problems of the respective regions of the world, and to develop measures and means of assistance.
6 functional commissions - for social development, on drugs, on science and technology for development, on development assistance, on statistics, on transnational corporations
ECOSOC coordinates the activities of 18 specialized institutions:
· M / n Telecommunication Union, ITU - 1865.
· UPU - Universal Postal Union - 1874.
· ILO - M \ n labor organization - 1919.
· ICAO - M \ n Civil Aviation Organization - 1944.
· FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations - 1945.
· UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization - 1945.
· IMF - M \ n Monetary Fund - 1945.
· WHO - World Health Organization - 1948.
· WMO - World Meteorological Organization - 1951.
· IMO - International Maritime Organization - 1959.
· UNIDO - United Nations Industrial Development Organization - 1966.
· WIPO - World Intellectual Property Organization - 1970.
· IFAD - M \ n agricultural development fund - 1977.
World Bank Group
o MBRD - M \ n Bank for Reconstruction and Development - 1946.
o MFC - M \ n financial corporation - 1956
o IDA - International Development Association - 1960.
o ICIUS - M / n Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes - 1966.
o MIGA - M \ n Investment Guarantee Agency - 1988.
UN-related organizations (autonomous institutions)
ü IAEA - M \ n Atomic Energy Agency
4. Guardianship council is authorized to review and discuss reports of the Administering Authority concerning the political, economic and social progress of the peoples of the Trust Territories and progress in education, as well as, in consultation with the Administering Authority, to consider petitions from the Trust Territories and to arrange periodic and other ad hoc visits to the Trust Territories.
5. International Court of Justice- main Judicial authority UN.
6. Secretariat are international staff working in agencies around the world and performing the various day-to-day work of the United Nations. It serves the other major UN bodies and implements the programs and policies they have adopted. The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary General, who is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a term of 5 years, with the possibility of re-election for a new term. Ban Ki-moon took over as Secretary General on January 1, 2007.
The GATT / WTO plays a fundamental role in the regulation of MT.
GATT - General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.
The treaty establishing the GATT entered into force in 1948.
On January 1, 1995, the GATT ceased to exist, being modified into the World Trade Organization (WTO).
GATT is a multilateral m / n agreement containing principles, legal norms, rules of conduct and state. regulation of mutual trade of the participating countries. It was mainly concerned with the liberalization of mutual trade in goods between the participating countries.
The WTO was created as a response to the changed conditions in the world practice of MT: the growth of trade in services, the emergence of a specific segment in the goods market - the market of intellectual products (formally, the WTO is based on three councils: the Council for Trade in Goods, Council for Trade in Services and Council for Trade Aspects of Security intellectual property rights).
The WTO consists of 153 states, which account for almost 97% of world trade.
The legal mechanism of the GATT / WTO is based on a number of principles and norms:
Mutual provision of most favored nation (MFN) treatment in trade;
Mutual provision of national treatment (NR) for goods and services of foreign origin;
- regulation of trade mainly by tariff methods;
Refusal to use quantitative and other restrictions;
Transparency of trade policy;
Settlement of trade disputes through consultation and negotiation, etc.
Over the years of its existence, the GATT / WTO managed to reduce the level of import tariffs of the PRS from 40-50% at the end of the 40s to 8-10% by the beginning of the 70s and to 4-5% at the present time.
Russia is negotiating to join the organization.
UNCTAD- UN Conference on Trade and Development:
1964 - creation. Headquarters - Geneva. In total - 193 member countries.
RF and former countries USSR - members of UNCTAD.
Target- to promote the development of MT and stimulate the development of member countries through MT.
The supreme body - the Conference - meets once every 4-5 years, all members of the organization are represented at it.
UNIDO- United Nations Industrial Development Organization:
Headquarters - Vienna. 173 member states, including the Russian Federation. 1966 - creation.
Initially, UNIDO was the arena of the struggle for a new economic order, since it included the G-77 group: the countries of the rich North had to voluntarily transfer 1% of GDP annually to developing countries. The USA refused, the USSR agreed at first, but then it turned out that the G-77 refers the USSR to the countries of the “rich North”. On the part of the USSR, a refusal of the conditions followed, since it never owned colonies in the south.
Target- to promote the industrial development of the member countries, as well as assistance in finding investors.
Structure:
The supreme body is the Conference; meets once every 2 years.
The UNIDO Council meets twice a year. It examines individual situations in industry, develops recommendations for developing countries, carries out an examination of the investment attractiveness of projects (+ implements programs to increase the investment attractiveness of states), collects and processes information.
Example: in the Republic of Sakha, UNIDO promoted cooperation between foreign capital and the republic and supported several investment projects.
The UNIDO examination system is taken as a basis in many countries, including the Russian Federation.
IMF- International Monetary Fund (International Monetary Fund) an intergovernmental organization designed to regulate monetary relations between member states and provide them with fin. help with currencies. difficulties caused by the balance of payments deficit by providing short- and medium-term loans in foreign. currency. The IMF, a specialized agency of the United Nations, was established in 1944 at the Bretton Woods conference.
The capital of the fund is formed on the basis of contributions from the participating countries. The number of votes in making decisions depends on the size of the country's contribution. The largest contributions (subscription quotas) have the ORS. The largest peo size: USA, Germany, Japan, France, UK, China, Saudi Arabia.
The IMF carries out all operations (primarily credit) only with the authorities of the member countries.
IMF loans are issued, as a rule, in credit shares (tranches) of 25% of the loan amount, the receipt of which is associated with the fulfillment of macroeconomic obligations recommended by the fund experts (failure to fulfill them leads to the suspension of the next tranche).
Russia is a member of the IMF.
World Bank Group or - an intergovernmental financial institution whose main purpose is to help developing countries increase productivity and income and fight poverty.
Established in 1944 at the Bretton Woods conference.
Consists of 5 organizations.
IBRD - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (“World Bank”). Created in 1944, 184 countries.
IDA stands for International Development Association. Created in 1960, 163 countries.
IFC - International Finance Corporation. Established 1956 175 countries.
MIGI - Multilateral Investment Guarante Agency. Created in 1980 by 158 countries.
ICSID - International Center settlement of investment disputes (International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes). Created in 1966, 134 countries.
Russia participates in all organizations of the World Bank Group except ICIUS.
The organizations outside the UN system include a very influential organization in the world OECD - Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, which was created in 1961, at the initiative of the United States. Headquarters in Paris.
It includes 34 countries, primarily countries with developed market economies. OECD member countries:
Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Chile, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, UK, United States. OECD member countries produce about 2/3 of the income centers.
The annual budget is about $ 328 million. USA. The amount of the country's contribution depends on the volume of the country's GDP. Largest size contributions from the USA and Japan.
A condition for joining the OECD is the country's commitment to the principles of democracy and market economy. Russia has observer status.
The OECD is primarily a forum through which member governments have the opportunity to discuss, develop and improve economic and social policies. Within its framework, they exchange experience, look for ways to solve common problems and develop a coordinated internal and foreign policy... The OECD Secretariat collects data, monitors trends, analyzes and forecasts economic processes, studies social shifts, the structure of trade relations, environment, agriculture, technology, taxation, etc.
Most of the OECD research and analysis materials are published in the open press.
OECD evolution
The OECD arose on the basis of the Organization for European Economic Cooperation, created to distribute American and Canadian aid directed by the Marshall plan to the post-war reconstruction of Europe. The main goal of the OECD, which was created as the legal successor of the PEEN in 1961, is to build a healthy economy in the member states, improve its efficiency, harmonize their market systems, spread freedom of trade and contribute to the further development of both industrialized and developing countries. ...
Over the thirty years of the Organization's existence, the focus of its analytical work has gradually shifted from the member states proper to the analysis of the development of countries - at present practically all of the members of the world community - professing the principles of a market economy. For example, the Organization offers all its accumulated experience to the services of states engaged in the construction of a market economy, especially those that are making the transition from a centrally planned economy to a capitalist system. The OECD is also engaged in an increasingly concrete policy dialogue with the dynamically developing countries of Asia and Latin America.
However, the OECD's work profile is expanding not only geographically. From the analysis of the development of specific areas of economic and social policy in specific member states of the OECD, it is moving to the study of their interaction, and not only within the framework of the Organization itself, but also on a global scale. The area of interest of the Organization included such problems as, for example, the impact of the current social policy on the functioning of the economy, or the impact on the economies of individual countries of the processes of globalization, which can both open up new prospects for growth and provoke a defensive reaction expressed in the strengthening of protectionism.
As the OECD increasingly expands its contacts around the world, its sphere of interest is also expanding. The goal of the OECD in the coming post-industrial era is to closely interweave the economic ties of the member countries with the future prosperous world economy based on scientific principles.
Organization structure
Committees
Representatives of OECD member countries meet among themselves and exchange information within the framework of the relevant specialized committees. These committees, which are attended by representatives of national governments or the respective permanent missions of the member countries, located, like the Secretariat, in Paris. All work is carried out under the direction of a Council with decision-making powers. The Council consists of one representative from each member state, as well as a representative of the European Commission. The Council meets on a regular basis at the level of the ambassadors of the member countries to the OECD, at these meetings the general directions of the Organization's activities are developed. Once a year, the Council meets at the level of heads of ministries, when ministers of foreign affairs, finance, etc. take part in its work, who raise the most important issues and draw public attention to them, and also set priorities for the OECD's work for the coming year ...
Specialized committees meet to generate new ideas and assess progress in narrower areas such as trade, public sector enterprise management, development assistance, financial markets, etc. The OECD bodies include more than 200 committees, working and expert groups. About 40,000 high-ranking officials from national governments come to their meetings annually to organize, review the results and participate in the work of the OECD Secretariat. Thanks to electronic communications, they have the ability to remotely access documents of the Organization and exchange information through the OECD data networks.
Secretariat
Secretariat staff (1,900) directly or indirectly support the work of the OECD committees. About 700 economists, scientists, lawyers and representatives of other professions, who are employees of the respective directorates, carry out research and analytical activities.
The work of the Secretariat is led by the Secretary General of the OECD and his four deputies. The Secretary General also presides over Council meetings, serving as an essential liaison between the OECD Country Offices and the Secretariat.
The official languages of the OECD are English and French. The staff is recruited in the OECD member countries, however, at the time of their work, they are considered international employees and do not represent the interests of the respective states. When hiring employees, the OECD does not apply any national quotas; the Organization's human resources policy is to recruit people with highly qualified in their respective fields, taking into account their work experience and nationality.
Financing
The work of the OECD is funded by contributions from member countries. The annual contribution of the Member States to the budget of the Organization is calculated according to a certain formula based on relevant economic indicators. The United States is the largest contributor, providing 25 percent of the OECD's budget, followed by Japan. With the approval of the Council, member countries are entitled to additional funding for individual programs or projects.
The size of the annual budget, currently about $ 300 million, and the OECD work plan for the year are determined by member states at Council meetings.
Results of work
Unlike the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, the OECD does not allocate funds. The Organization is primarily a forum for generating new ideas based on research and analysis of socio-economic policies and their discussion with the aim of helping national governments to develop both common policies agreed within the OECD and national policy of the respective states held both in internal affairs and in other international forums.
Despite the fact that the role of the OECD in these matters is not always decisive, in the eyes of member governments it is nevertheless extremely important. Work within the OECD is a highly effective process, starting with data collection, and includes both an analysis phase and a brainstorming phase of policy. At the core of the OECD's performance is cross-validation of proposed solutions by national governments, multilateral monitoring of their implementation, and the mutual influence of countries in adhering to commitments or implementing reforms. It was the backstage work within the OECD that made it possible to determine the cost of agricultural subsidies, which later became a decisive factor for concluding agreements on their agreed reduction. Interdisciplinary research into the causes of the rise in unemployment and the fight against this phenomenon has served as the impetus that compelled governments to develop appropriate measures to combat it. Identifying barriers to efficient operation, economic growth and modernization and their consequences often prompts national governments to make tough policy decisions aimed at improving the efficiency of the economy. The analytical work of the OECD and its efforts to build consensus on trade in services issues contributed to the successful conclusion of the Uruguay Round of negotiations under the GATT.
In some cases, discussions initiated within the OECD lead to full-scale negotiations under the auspices of the organization, as a result of which member countries come to an agreement on the development of certain rules for cooperation on an international scale. These negotiations can end both with the conclusion of formal agreements (for example, on the fight against corruption, on export credits, capital flows and foreign direct investment), and the development of certain standards and models in international taxation, or recommendations and main directions of policy in the field of environmental protection. ...
Most of the material collected and analyzed by the OECD's work is made public through a wide range of publications: from press releases and regularly published compilations of data and forecasts to one-off publications (or monographs) on specific issues, from annual economic reviews for each of the member countries to regularly published reviews on education systems, science and technology and environmental policy issues. The Economic Outlook collection is published twice a year, the Employment Forecast and the OECD International Aid Policy Report are published annually. OECD publications enjoy a well-deserved prestige, and, perhaps, it is by them that the public judges the activities of the Organization.
Secretariat structure
The activities of the Secretariat are structured in accordance with the structure of the committees; the committees are organized into directorates, which also include working groups and subgroups formed by the committees. It should be noted, however, that the work of the OECD is increasingly based on interdisciplinary and “horizontal” research that transcends specific sectors. For example, the OECD's International Future program, which aims to proactively identify emerging economic and social policy issues, involves a wide range of scientific disciplines. Specialists in the fields of macroeconomics, taxation, entrepreneurship and technology work in conjunction with labor market and social policy researchers on employment and unemployment. It is already inconceivable to study separately the problems of environmental protection and economic processes. The problems of trade and investment are inextricably linked. Biotechnology development affects agricultural, industrial, scientific, environmental and economic development policies. Studying the problems of globalization will inevitably require the involvement of specialists from practically all areas of socio-economic policy.
A number of m / n organizations have been established by developing countries. The most famous was Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), created by the oil-producing powers in 1960. The members of this organization are countries whose economies largely depend on revenues from oil exports.
OPEC currently has 12 members: Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Qatar, Libya, United Arab Emirates, Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador, Angola. In 2008, Russia announced its readiness to become a permanent observer in the cartel.
The goal of OPEC is to coordinate activities and develop a common policy regarding oil production among the member countries of the organization, maintain stable oil prices, ensure stable oil supplies to consumers, and receive returns on investments in the oil industry.
In the 70s. OPEC has made significant progress, but in the future its importance has weakened for a number of reasons. But, at present, it again plays a crucial role in the global energy market, regulating the volumes of production and trade in oil and oil products by member countries.
Characteristic feature world economic development is the increasing role informal economic organizations :
1) World Economic Forum- international non-governmental organization, whose activities are aimed at developing international cooperation. The forums are held in Davos (Switzerland).
Created in 1971. WEF members are about 1000 large companies and organizations from different countries of the world, including Russia. Constant executive agency- Board of Directors. The headquarters is located in the suburb of Geneva - Cologne. The budget is formed at the expense of annual membership fees and funds contributed by the Forum participants. The list of participants is reviewed annually.
The founder and permanent leader of the WEF is Professor from Switzerland Klaus Schwab. On his initiative, the first symposium was held in 1971, bringing together about 450 leaders of leading European companies to discuss the prospects for the global economy and develop a common strategy. At the first meetings, which were held under the auspices of the Commission of the European Communities (now the European Commission), they discussed mainly issues of improving the position of Western Europe in the competition. Over the years, the topics have gradually expanded, the agenda included political and economic issues affecting other regions, problems of improving the mechanism of world trade, correct partnership. In the mid-70s, influential people from all over the world (members of governments and business leaders) began to be invited to Davos, and in the next decade the forum acquired the status of one of the main events of the year.
The main event of the WEF is the annual meetings, which are traditionally held at the world famous ski resort of Davos in late January - early February (with the exception of the session in New York in 2002 held in solidarity with the United States after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks).
By tradition, here, in an informal atmosphere, key issues of our time, prospects for economic development, strengthening stability and peace, the situation in "hot spots" are discussed. Resolutions or other documents are not adopted here, but the Forum provides an opportunity to meet and discuss in an informal setting many key issues for the world economy, establish new business contacts, and hold informal meetings "face to face" and "without ties."
Since 1979, WEF experts have been compiling an annual report "Global Competitiveness", which evaluates more than 100 countries of the world according to two main indicators - the index of potential growth and the index of competitiveness. V recent times The WEF began to issue additional ratings for individual regions and sectors of the economy. In particular, in 2005, the Arab World Competitiveness report was released, the first study of its kind for the Arab region; by the 60th anniversary session of the UN General Assembly, the WEF report on partnership between government and business in solving such problems as the problem of poverty in the world was published; in the framework of the "Global Governance Initiative" WEF presented a report on the success in solving global problems in 2005.
Within the framework of the Forum, groups or clubs for professional interests have been created and operate. For example, recently formed associations "Pioneers of high technologies" (includes the leaders of the most advanced companies in the field of scientific and technological progress), as well as the "Forum of New Global Leaders", which brings together well-known leaders not older than 40 years, "have demonstrated a commitment to improving the situation in the world ".
The beginning of cooperation between Russia and the WEF was laid in 1986. Since 1987, Russian delegations have been constantly participating in the annual meetings of the Forum, and visiting sessions of the EEF are regularly held in Russia.
Big Eight is an international club uniting the governments of the seven most industrially developed countries of the world and Russia. The G8 is not an international organization, it is not based on an international treaty, has no charter and no secret
International Economic Organization - an organization created on the basis of international agreements with the aim of unification, regulation, development of joint decisions in the field of international economic relations.
International economic relations (MEO) - economic relations between states, regional groupings, transnational corporations and other subjects of the world economy.
There are the following types of MEO:
1. Interstate universal organizations, the purpose and subject of activity of which are of interest to all states of the world.
This is primarily the UN system, which includes the UN and the UN specialized agencies, which are independent MEOs. Among them are the IMF, IBRD, WTO, UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development).
2. Interstate organizations of a regional and interregional nature, which are created by states to address various issues, incl. economic and financial. For example, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
3. MEO operating in certain segments of the world market.
In this case, they most often act in the form of commodity organizations that unite a circle of countries. For example, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC, 1960), International Tin Agreement (1956), International Agreements on Cocoa, Coffee, International Agreement on Textiles (MSTT, 1974).
4. MEO, represented by semi-formal associations of the "seven" type (USA, Japan, Canada, Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy).
5. Various trade and economic, monetary and financial and credit, industry and specialized economic and scientific and technical organizations.
UN - United Nations, created in 1945. The UN system consists of the United Nations with its main and subsidiary bodies, 18 specialized agencies, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and a number of programs, councils and commissions.
UN goals:
Maintaining international peace and security through effective collective action and the peaceful settlement of disputes;
Development of friendly relations between nations based on respect for the principles of equality and self-determination of peoples;
Ensuring international cooperation in resolving international economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems and promoting human rights.
WTO - World Trade Organization. It began to operate on 01.01.1995, is the successor to the one that operated since 1947. General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO is the only legal and institutional framework for the World Trade Organization.
The fundamental principles of the WTO are:
Providing most favored nation treatment in trade on a non-discriminatory basis;
Mutual provision of national treatment for goods and services of foreign origin;
Regulation of trade mainly by tariff methods;
Refusal to use quantitative restrictions;
Promoting fair competition;
Settlement of trade disputes through consultations.
World Bank Group. The World Bank is a multilateral lending institution, consisting of 5 closely related institutions, the common goal of which is to improve living standards in developing countries through financial assistance from developed countries.
1. IBRD (International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) was founded in 1945, the goal: to provide loans to relatively wealthy developing countries.
2. IDA (International Development Association) was founded in 1960 with the goal of providing concessional loans to the poorest developing countries.
3. IFC (International Finance Corporation) was established in 1956 with the aim of promoting economic growth in developing countries by supporting the private sector.
4. IAIG (International Investment Guarantee Agency) was founded in 1988 with the aim of encouraging foreign investment in developing countries by providing guarantees to foreign investors against losses caused by non-commercial risks.
5. ICSID (International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes) was established in 1966. Purpose: to facilitate an increase in international investment flows through the provision of arbitration and dispute settlement services by governments and foreign investors; consulting, Scientific research, information on investment legislation.
IMF - International Monetary Fund. Created in 1945
Functions:
Maintaining a common settlement system;
Monitoring the state of the international monetary system;
Promoting the stability of exchange rates;
Providing short-term and medium-term loans;
Providing advice and participation in cooperation.
Each state, joining the IMF, contributes a certain amount - a subscription quota (a richer country contributes a larger quota and has a large number of votes).
To provide financial support to its members, the IMF uses the following mechanisms:
1. Conventional mechanisms:
Tranche policy (loans in the form of shares constituting 25% of the quota of a given country);
Extended financing facility (lending over 3 years to overcome balance of payments difficulties).
2. Special mechanisms:
Lending in case of unforeseen circumstances (for example, an increase in prices for imported grain);
Financing of buffer stocks (credit for the replenishment of stocks of raw materials).
3. Emergency assistance (in the form of purchasing goods in order to solve balance of payments problems).
Includes monetary, financial, trade, industrial, labor and other relations. Monetary and financial relations are the leading form of international economic relations.
In the modern world, globalization and regionalization of international economic relations are especially relevant. The dominant role in the establishment of the world economic order belongs to transnational capital and international institutions, among which the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) play an important role.
As a result of the international division of labor, the world poles of economic and technological development (North American, Western European and Asia-Pacific) have been formed. Among the urgent problems of international economic relations are the problems of creating free economic zones, international transport corridors. (Scan from a book)
TNC as one of the common forms international business .
TNCs are in fact the main participants in international economic relations (IEE). TNK is an opportunity to combine the capabilities of a large differentiated organization with powerful production facilities into a single whole. Combining the advantages of its overseas subsidiaries. These companies benefit from creating science-intensive production in Europe, and labor-intensive in countries with cheap labor. The peculiarity is that TNCs are not tied to the economy of one country.
Job responsibilities of an international manager.
A person holding the position of an international manager has a wider range of duties and responsibilities than a manager of his rank in the country where the parent company is based.
First of all, the international manager needs to go through an adaptation period to operate in the conditions of the host country, as well as take measures to eliminate possible loss of assets of his corporation or control over them in the host country.
It should consider the actions of government authorities or competitors to reduce its market share in the host country, and eliminate the likelihood of such a risk.
The international manager has to deal with high-ranking government officials according to his duty, he must be not only a manager, but also a politician and diplomat. Carrying out his activities and making decisions, the international manager must have reliable information about his partners.
It is necessary in order to answer two main questions:
Who do I work with?
What can you expect from your foreign partner? To build relationships with foreign companies directly (without intermediaries):
· Do not limit funds for the study of partners, competitors and consumers, regardless of their nationality; ...
· When communicating with them, special attention should be paid to the traditions, customs and culture of the country in which the interlocutor was brought up, and it is necessary to respect his point of view.
The main abilities that ensure the successful performance of the functions of an international manager:
Ability to quickly adapt to the conditions of a foreign country;
Ability to think, taking into account international differences, and overcome them in the interests of the cause;
Creative initiative;
Ability to act according to a predetermined plan;
Flexibility in dealing with foreign partners and firmness in defending the interests of the company;
Honesty;
The rationality of the decisions made;
Preparedness for unexpected situations;
Ability to choose the best option from the presented opportunities;
Enterprise;
Sociability;
Purposefulness;
Striving for integration;
No reluctance to carry out long-term projects;
Knowledge of foreign languages;
Ability to convince and work in a team;
Tolerance to the customs and culture of foreigners;
Mental stability;
Desire to work abroad.
International economic relations are defined by two key points:
The objective need for the implementation of foreign economic relations;
The mutual interest and economic benefits of these relationships for partners from different countries.
However, in all relations arising between foreign partners, the principle of equality must be observed.
When appointing an International Manager for a specific project, you should carefully select his candidacy. During the implementation of the project, it is necessary to avoid replacing the manager, as this can undermine the confidence of foreign partners in stable cooperation.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC)- international regional organization... APEC is the largest economic association (forum), accounting for over 60% of world GDP and 47% of world trade (2004). Founded in 1989 in Canberra on the initiative of the Prime Ministers of Australia and New Zealand. The main goals of the organization are to ensure a free open trade regime and strengthen regional cooperation.
Arctic Council is an international organization created in 1989 at the initiative of Finland to protect the unique nature of the northern polar zone. The Arctic Council includes eight subarctic countries
Association of Southeast Asian Nations- political, economic and cultural regional intergovernmental organization of countries located in Southeast Asia. ASEAN was formed on August 9, 1967 in Bangkok with the signing of the "ASEAN Declaration", better known as the "Bangkok Declaration"
African Union (AU)- an international organization uniting 53 African states, the successor of the Organization of African Unity (OAU). The course towards the creation of the African Union was proclaimed on September 9, 1999 at the meeting of African heads of state in Sirte (Libya) at the initiative of Muammar Gaddafi. On July 9, 2002, the OAU was officially reorganized into the AU.
Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas (ALBA)- an alliance of the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. The ALBA alliance includes eight countries: Bolivia, Venezuela, Cuba, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Dominica, Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.
Big Eight- according to most definitions, this is a group of seven industrialized countries of the world and Russia. The unofficial forum of the leaders of these countries (Russia, USA, Great Britain, France, Japan, Germany, Canada, Italy) with the participation of the European Commission is also called, within the framework of which approaches to pressing international problems are coordinated.
The World Bank - a group of three international financial institutions - IBRD and its branches: IFC, IDA.
World Trade Organization (WTO)(English World Trade Organization (WTO)) is an international organization created in 1995 to unite different countries in the economic sphere and the establishment of rules for trade between member states. The WTO is the successor to an agreement called the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO headquarters is located in Geneva.
GUAM is an interstate organization, created in October 1997 by the former Soviet republics - Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan and Moldova (from 1999 to 2005, the organization also included Uzbekistan). The name of the organization was formed from the first letters of the names of its member countries. Before Uzbekistan left the organization, it was called GUUAM.
European Union (EU)- a unique supranational entity comprising 25 European states that have signed the Treaty on The European Union(Maastricht Treaty). It is noteworthy that the European Union itself is not an international organization as such, that is, it is not a subject of public international law, but has the authority to participate in international relations.
EFTA- grouping from countries: Austria, Iceland, Norway, Finland, Switzerland, Sweden. Organized in 1960. In the mutual trade of these countries, customs duties and benefits have been canceled. Each state conducts an independent trade policy both among themselves and in relation to the countries of the "third world".
League of Arab States (LAS)- an international organization uniting more than 20 Arab and friendly non-Arab countries. Created on March 22, 1945. The supreme body of the organization is the Council of the League, in which each of the member states has one vote, the headquarters of the League is in Cairo.
IDA - International Development Association - (IBRD Branch) provides loans to countries in 3 worlds on more favorable terms than the IBRD.
MBRD - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development - international financial institution, specializing in the formation of credit lines aimed at stimulating international trade.
IMF – International Monetary Fund Is an international financial and economic organization that regulates currency relations between states and provides them with loans. Since 1992, Russia is also a member of the IMF, with a total of 180 countries.
IFC - International Finance Corporation - (a branch of the MBRD), is designed to encourage private entrepreneurship in developing countries, members of the IBRD.
MERCOSUR- the largest association in South America... MERCOSUR unites 250 million people and more than 75% of the total GDP of the continent. The name of the organization comes from the Spanish Mercado Comun del Sur, which means "South American Common Market". The first step towards the creation of a unified market was the free trade agreement signed by Argentina and Brazil in 1986. In 1990, Paraguay and Uruguay joined this agreement.
Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)- a military-political union created by the former Soviet republics on the basis of the Collective Security Treaty (CST), signed on May 15, 1992. The contract is renewed automatically every five years.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development - OECD - established in 1961, includes more than 84 countries, which account for more than 2/3 of world production. The OECD is a club of politically developed countries for coordinating economic policy, conducting research on a global scale, it is a center for the development of econometric models of the world economy.
NATO (NATO, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, North Atlantic Alliance)- a military-political alliance created on the basis of the North Atlantic Treaty signed on April 4, 1949 in Washington by twelve states: the USA, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Canada, Italy, Portugal, Norway, Denmark, Iceland. Later, other European states joined NATO. In 2004, NATO includes 26 states.
NIS - newly industrialized countries that have signed cooperation agreements: Singapore, South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan.
OSCE (English OSCE, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe)- Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the largest regional security organization, which includes 56 states in Europe, Central Asia and North America. The organization sets itself the task of revealing the possibility of conflicts, their prevention, settlement and elimination of the consequences.
United Nations (UN)- an international organization created to maintain and strengthen international peace and security and the development of cooperation between states. The foundations of its activities and structure were developed during the Second World War by the leading members of the anti-Hitler coalition.
North American Free Trade Area (NAFTA)- Free trade agreement between Canada, USA and Mexico, based on the model of the European Community (European Union). NAFTA went into effect on January 1, 1994.
Union du Maghreb Arabe UMA- Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, Tunisia. Pan-Arab organization aimed at economic and political unity in North Africa... The idea of creating a union appeared along with the independence of Tunisia and Morocco in 1958.
Commonwealth of Democratic Choice (CDC)- “Community of democracies of the Baltic-Black Sea-Caspian region”, an organization alternative to the CIS, established on December 2, 2005 at the founding forum in Kiev (Ukraine).
Commonwealth, or the Commonwealth of Nations (eng. The Commonwealth, or eng.- a voluntary interstate association of independent sovereign states, which includes Great Britain and almost all of its former dominions, colonies and protectorates.
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)- an interstate union of most of the former union republics of the USSR. Originally formed by Belarus, Russia and Ukraine; In the Agreement on the Establishment of the CIS, signed on December 8, 1991 in Minsk, these states stated that the USSR in conditions of a deep crisis and disintegration ceased to exist, and declared their desire to develop cooperation in the political, economic, humanitarian, cultural and other fields.
Commonwealth Unrecognized States(CIS-2) - informal association created for consultation, mutual assistance, coordination and joint action by unrecognized self-proclaimed state entities on the post-Soviet territory - Abkhazia, the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic and South Ossetia.
Council of Europe- Europe's oldest international political organization... Its main declared goal is to build a united Europe based on the principles of freedom, democracy, protection of human rights and the rule of law. One of the most significant achievements of the Council of Europe is considered the development and adoption of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.
Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (GCC)- regional international organization. In the English name of the organization, the word "Persian" is absent, since the Arab states prefer to call this gulf "Arab".
The Schengen Agreement- Agreement "On the abolition of passport customs control between a number of European Union countries", originally signed on June 14, 1985 by seven European states (Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Germany, Portugal and Spain). It entered into force on March 26, 1995. The agreement was signed in Schengen, a small town in Luxembourg.
SECTION IX
GLOSSARY
to tests and crosswords:
Unemployment - it is a socio-economic phenomenon in which part of the working-age population cannot find a job.
Budget deficit - excess of expenses over income.
Budget surplus - excess of income over expenses.
"Goal tree" - a method based on the hierarchical principle of achieving the general goal.
Jay Curve - a time lag that occurs between currency devaluation and an improvement in the trade balance.
Devaluation- depreciation of the national currency.
Dumping policy- the policy of artificially setting prices below market prices. In some cases, prices can drop to the level of production costs.
The dilemma "income-leisure" - it is an economic situation in which the priority of income is achieved at the expense of the "sacrifice" of leisure, and vice versa, the priority of leisure is achieved at the expense of the "sacrifice" of income. This dilemma is based on the "victim theory" authored by Nassau Senior.
Dirigism - the concept of state regulation of the economy, based on indicative, differentiated management of macroeconomic indicators.
Dichotomy - sequential division of the whole into parts.
Discount - a form of the market's trade infrastructure, a store that sells medium-quality goods at reduced prices.
Subsidies- budgetary funds provided to the budget of another level on a gratuitous and non-refundable basis to cover current expenses.
Dragonter - a form of the trading infrastructure of the market, a store with a high degree of automation of operations.
Gossen's Law # 1 - the law of diminishing marginal utility - when the total utility is maximized, the marginal utility tends to decline.
Gossen's Law No. 2 - the condition of consumer equilibrium - when maximizing the total utility, the marginal utility should be the same value.
Clayton's law prohibits vertical and horizontal mergers, intertwining directorates (1914).
Okun's Law - if unemployment exceeds the natural level by 1%, the GNP loss will amount to 2.5%.
The law of supply - direct proportional relationship between price and supply of goods.
Robinson-Patman Law - prohibits price discrimination, price scissors, (1936)
Demand law- inversely proportional relationship between the price and the demand for the goods.
The law of value- goods are produced and exchanged on the basis of socially necessary labor costs.
The law of diminishing marginal productivity of factors of production - an economic situation in which investment in factors of production reaches a certain limit, after which the return on factors of production begins to decline.
Sherman law prohibits secret monopolization of trade, sole control over prices and price collusion (1890).
Engel's law - reflects an inverse relationship between the share of income spent on food and the standard of living: the higher the cost of food in the total expenditure, the lower the standard of living.
Poverty Index - is the sum of the values of the unemployment rate and inflation
Institutionalism - school of economic thought, which was formed in the 20-30s of the XX century to study the totality of socio-economic institutions in time.
Inflation Is the depreciation of money, accompanied by a rise in prices.
Convinnesonter - a form of the trade infrastructure of the market, a small store with a limited range of products with a high degree of readiness.
Competition - is the rivalry of manufacturers to achieve more better conditions production and sales of products.
One stop shop concept - a form of state regulation based on a simplified interaction of state institutions with legal entities and individuals.
Marshall Cross - it is the economic situation that occurs when supply and demand curves intersect.
Isoquant curve - reflects the mutual influence of the factor of labor and capital in the production matrix of production volumes (built on the basis of the transformation curve).
Isocost curve - reflects the relationship between the price of factors of production and production capabilities under budget constraints (based on the budget constraint line).
Laffer curve - reflects the dependence of tax revenue on tax rates.
Lorentz curve- reflects the relationship between the relative values of income and the number of recipients.
Engel curve - reflects the inverse relationship between the share of income spent on food and living standards.
Transformation Curve (Production Capability Curve) - reflects the dependence of production volumes on the efficiency of the use of production factors.
Phillips Curve - inversely proportional relationship between inflation and unemployment.
Lag effect - lag effect .
Libertarianism- the concept of redistribution of income in the state, according to which the regions must independently provide the necessary level of their own income.
Liquidity - it is the degree of ease with which any kind of asset can be converted into legal tender.
Marginalism- an economic school that explains economic processes and phenomena based on the limiting, incremental values or conditions. Marginalism makes extensive use of economic and mathematical methods and is based on quantitative analysis. Marginalism is based on three schools: Cambridge (subject of research: demand, supply, elasticity), Austrian (theory of needs), Lausan (subject of research: introduction of mathematical apparatus into the economy). This is a young trend in economic thought that originated in the second half of the 19th century.
Marxism is a school of economic thought that expresses the interests of the working class.
Mercantilism is a school of economic thought that saw the basis of national prosperity in the accumulation of precious metals (gold and silver), which were considered the main forms of wealth. This is the first scientific school of economics, which laid the foundations of early monetarism, the policy of foreign economic relations, the policy of protectionism.
Merchandising - form of product promotion from producer to consumer.
Economic duality method - eh This method is only used in economics and is a concretization of general scientific research methods, taking into account the specifics of the subject of political economy. The originator of this method was Adam Smith. The method of economic duality makes it possible to scientifically explain the external appearance of economic phenomena in terms of their essential properties, as well as to identify both external functional relationships between these phenomena and their essential laws. This method is especially clearly manifested in the polarity of economic interests, for example, in the specifics of economic relations between a producer and a consumer, an employer and an employee, the state and a taxpayer, etc.
Monetarism- an economic school based on the decisive role of the money supply in circulation, on the priority of monetary regulation of the economy.
Cartoonist- the coefficient reflecting the increase in income to the increase in investment.
"The paradox of thrift" - means that an increase in savings leads to a decrease in income.
Smith's Paradox -"Why is water, which is so useful for humans, is so cheap, and diamonds, whose usefulness is much lower, are so expensive?"
Peripateticism - it is a philosophical doctrine founded by Aristotle in 335 BC, received its name in connection with the habit of the thinker to lead philosophical reflections during walks - this is the school of "strolling" philosophers.
Entrepreneurship- innovative, proactive activities aimed at maximizing profits associated with the presence of risks in connection with the introduction of a new product, method of production, technology.
Marginal utility - the utility of the last unit of the consumed good.
Occam's Razor Principle - in the 14th century, details that complicate the theory were proposed, which were not absolutely necessary to explain the facts and relationships, to "shave off".
Protectionism - the policy of protecting domestic producers from the influence of foreign competition.
Revaluation - increase in the exchange rate of the national currency.
Stagflation - a period during which chronic inflation is accompanied by a decline in economic activity.
Lumpflation - parallel existence of rising unemployment and rising inflation .
Subvention- budgetary funds provided to the budget of another level, or legal entity on a gratuitous and non-refundable basis for the implementation of certain targeted costs.
Subsidy- budgetary funds provided to the budget of another level, to an individual or legal entity on the terms of shared financing of targeted expenses.
Superonter - a form of the market's trade infrastructure, a shop selling perishable goods.
Product- an economic benefit, a product of human labor intended for sale on the market.
Taxonometry - a system of indicators for assessing the development of regions.
Coase's theorem- external effects can be internalized with a clear specification of property rights to resources and the free exchange of these rights.
Rybczynski's theorem - the growing supply of one of the factors of production leads to an increase in income in this industry, where this factor is used more intensively, and to a reduction in income in the industry, where this factor is used less intensively.
Stolper-Samuelson theorem - the establishment of trade relations and free trade leads to an increase in the remuneration of a factor that is intensively used in production, and, conversely, to a decrease in the remuneration of a factor that is less intensively used in production.
The Heckscher-Ohlin theorem - countries will strive to export goods that require significant inputs of production factors for their production, which they have in relative surplus and small inputs of scarce factors in exchange for inverse proportions.
Commodity-money fetishism - a form of worship, bondage to goods or money.
Transaction costs - non-production costs.
Transfers- budgetary funds to finance mandatory payments to the population: pensions, scholarships, allowances, compensations, and other social payments.
Utilitarianism- the concept of redistribution of income in the state, according to which the state undertakes the obligation of moderate redistribution only in terms of eliminating the level of the poorest regions.
Physiocratism - it is a school of economic thought, which is based on the idea of achieving the welfare of the state through the development of agriculture.
Franchising - This is a technology for expanding the sales market based on the conclusion of a franchise agreement between the franchisor (parent company) and the franchisee (small company).
Free trade- free trade policy.
Price discrimination Is the establishment of different prices for the same product depending on the location of outlets.
Egalitarianism- the concept of redistribution of income in the state, according to which an active state policy for equalizing income is provided, while it is not required to ensure absolute equality of income, but it is necessary to achieve the maximum possible at a given level of economic efficiency.
Eponymy - spontaneous, naturally occurring assignment of the name of a scientist to a principle discovered by him, a law, a doctrine created by him (for example, Gossen's laws, the Paretto principle, the Giffen effect, etc.)
Etatism- the policy of tax arbitrariness of the state.
Veblen effect - the effect of prestigious, status consumption, the “collector's” effect.
The Giffen Effect - an exception to the law of demand applies to the group of lower goods in the consumption structure.
The invisible hand effect - it is an economic situation in which the realization of one's own economic interests automatically leads to the realization of public economic interests.
International Economic Integration (MEI) has found practical embodiment in a number of integration associations of the world, which determine the state and prospects further development the world economy in general and international economic relations in particular. The concept of "integration", i.e. "restoration, replenishment". It means the state of connectedness of separate differentiated parts and functions of the system as a whole. This concept also means the process leading to this state. Therefore, international integration can be defined as an objective, deliberate process aimed at rapprochement, interpenetration and merging of national economies of different countries in the region.
Integration is, first of all, interstate regulation of economic interdependence, as well as the formation of a regional economic complex with a structure and proportions addressed to the needs of the region as a whole; a process that frees the movement of goods, services, capital and labor from national barriers, leading to the creation of a single internal market, which ensures an increase in labor productivity and an increase in the standard of living in the countries of this integration association. MPEI has reached the greatest maturity in the economic space of the European continent. The integration process in Western Europe after World War II was initiated by political decisions taken at the level of the leadership of the leading countries of the European region.
Global financial crisis 2007 2011 plunged the global and regional integration process into a special phase of survival of practically all integration unions in the world, especially the European Union.
European Union. The starting point for the creation of the EU and the formation of a common European economic space should be considered the Paris statement of May 9, 1950 by French Foreign Minister R. Schumann, who proposed placing all coal and steel production in Western Europe under a common interethnic leadership.
A new impetus to European integration was given in 1957 with the signing of the Treaty of Rome, according to which two more associations were established - the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom). Thus, the Treaty of Rome united three communities: ECSC, EEC and Euratom into a single economic bloc, which until 1992 was called the European Economic Community, and then renamed the European Union.
In the European Union, since January 1, 1993, the national mechanisms of control of intraregional relations have been eliminated. The criterion for international economic activity throughout the EU has become economic feasibility, therefore, within the EU, the concepts of "export" and "import" have lost all meaning.
Over the years of existence and development of the EU, a single market for financial services has also been created. In the tax area, gradually, by overcoming various difficulties, the harmonization of taxes and taxation systems of the EU countries continues.
The most important component of European economic integration has become the monetary integration of the EU countries. Achievements in the formation of a single regional economic complex served as the objective basis for currency integration. The formation of a monetary union within the EU and the introduction of the single European currency into non-cash circulation since January 1999 demanded from the EU countries and its governing bodies both a theoretical understanding and a practical solution to the problems of international monetary integration carried out for the first time in the world.
For the successful development of economic integration inland, it was necessary to develop and constantly implement a common integration policy for all EU member states in the following areas of economic interaction.
Agrarian policy. Agriculture is one of the most important areas of EU policy. The overwhelming majority of all regulations and directives relate to agricultural problems, this sector is directly or indirectly allocated most of the EU budget. Agrarian policy is based on a single price system, which guarantees the establishment of a single minimum price for many agricultural products in the EU countries.
Industrial policy. It can be defined, based on the economic policy of the EU as a whole, as a set of interrelated decisions of the governing bodies of the EU, striving, using various business development tools, to achieve quantitative and qualitative medium- or long-term goals for the European industry.
union as a whole. The effectiveness of industrial policy as such can be ensured only through its interaction with the entire range of measures of the EU integration policy, and its goals should be subordinated and coordinated with general and local goals in all other areas of EU economic activity. The goal of industrial policy is to strengthen and update the industrial base of European states and change its structure to increase the share of domestic consumption of products of advanced industries through its own production and increase the competitiveness of industrial goods of the EU countries in world markets.
Foreign economic policy is one of the most important tools for influencing the state and dynamics of development of European industry. It is based on a reasonable combination of measures to remove obstacles to the free international exchange of goods, services and factors of production, and measures to protect EU domestic producers.
Foreign trade policy at the current stage, it provides the national governments of the EU countries with the following opportunities:
- introduce import quotas for goods from third countries;
- conclude agreements on so-called voluntary export restrictions (primarily with countries that have extremely low prices pas products of the textile and electronic industries);
- use by agreement import quotas for trade in textile fibers;
- maintain special trade relations with the former colonies of Great Britain.
Competition Regulation Policy. Regulation of competition has become one of the most important directions of the EU integration policy. The official goal of this policy is not only to remove barriers to exchange between member countries, but also to stimulate optimal resource allocation and create more competitive structures.
The main purpose of the EU competition policy is to remove public and private barriers to the development of open and free competition, which is extremely important for stimulating intercountry economic cooperation in the interests of international business.
Foreign exchange policy. When the EU was created, a desire was expressed to come to a common monetary policy. However, concrete steps in this direction were not taken at first. In addition, a unified monetary policy determines the implementation of a unified economic policy, which the member states could not dare to do in the early stages of the EU's formation. The first step towards the creation of a European monetary system was the introduction in 1971 of the European unit of account - the ECU. The ECU was replaced in 1999 by a new currency unit of the united Europe - the euro. In this regard, the European Central Bank was created, located in Frankfurt am Main (FRG). The transition of 12 EU countries to the euro greatly facilitated the conduct of international business both within the EU and outside it. In 2015, the euro is used as the official currency in 19 European countries.
Regional policy. In the process of Western European integration in the 1990s. the role of regional policy was steadily increasing. Now we are talking about the creation of a fundamentally new entity - "Europe of Regions", which is gradually moving towards the federal mud of the supranational system.
Expansion of the European Union to the East. Since 2004, the European Union has entered a qualitatively new stage in its development, and in 2004, 2007 and 2013. the number of its members expanded at the expense of the states of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), Southern Europe and the Baltic States from 15 to 28. Given the accompanying geopolitical factors, such an event can be compared in importance with the creation of the Common Market itself more than 40 years ago.
From 1957 to 2013, the European Union went through seven stages of enlargement. The new quality of the last three stages is determined primarily by the fact that the countries that 10 years ago were building socialist society... Some of them (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) were part of the former USSR and directly interacted in the economic sphere with Russia, which is nearby geographically and provides them with financial, scientific and logistical support. Since 2007, Bulgaria and Romania have been admitted to the EU, and since 2013 - Croatia.
The enlargement of the EU to the East will also have positive and negative consequences for Russia in the short and long term.
Note that 2009 was marked by the adoption of the Lisbon Act (treaty), providing for a radical restructuring of the EU governance structure (introduction of the post of EU President, EU Foreign Minister and other changes). In the years of the current financial and economic crisis, the European Union has to take strenuous measures for anti-crisis regulation of the economies of a number of EU countries (Greece, Ireland, Spain, Portugal) with a single European currency - the euro. Despite the differences and differences of allies' opinions on the ways and methods of solving the problems that have arisen, the leading EU countries (France and Germany) manage to contain the onslaught of crisis outbursts and keep the European ship "EU" afloat.
NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement). The integration process in North America has been developing for several decades, but political institutions, contributing to the formation of this process, have become widespread relatively recently. This is due to the fact that the main initiator of the integration process in North America is the United States with an exceptionally high level of economic development (US GDP amounted to $ 16.7 trillion in 2013). Until the end of the 1980s. The United States did not feel the need to conclude agreements with any countries.
The agreement on the creation of a free trade zone between the United States, Canada and Mexico represents a new stage in the development of international economic relations on the North American continent. This tripartite agreement had as its goal the formation of a single economic space through the abolition of customs barriers between states, ensuring the free movement of goods, services, capital and labor across their borders. The effectiveness of the Agreement can only be revealed after two decades, which is primarily due to the scale of the US economy compared to Canada and Mexico. V last years in general, there is an increase in exports and imports between the United States and Mexico, there is an increase in employment and income levels of the population of the NAFTA countries, there is an increase in labor productivity. In addition, there is a transfer of part of the business from the United States to Mexico with a simultaneous migration of labor resources from Mexico to the United States. All this can be explained to some extent by the positive impact of the formation of NAFTA on international economic cooperation in the North American continent.
Integration associations of Latin America. Integration in Latin America led to the creation in 1960 of the Latin American Free Trade Association (LAST). In 1980, LAST was reorganized into the Latin American Integration Association (LAI). Then the states of Latin America began to move from the practice of creating multilateral associations to organizing small groups. One of them is the Common Market (MERCOSUR) established in 1995 between Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay. Later, Paraguay joined MERCOSUR, and then Venezuela. In MERCOSUR, 95% of mutual trade is free of duties, and in the near future it is planned to abolish the remaining tariffs.
Thanks to the creation of MERCOSUR, there was a significant increase in internal trade between the countries participating in this association, interaction with other interaction associations increased (for example, in 1995, a Cooperation Agreement with the EU was signed), investment activity of both the parties to the Agreement and third countries increased. In addition, a preliminary agreement was signed on the establishment of a free trade area between MERCOSUR and the South African Development Community.
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations). Since the 1980s. The Asia-Pacific region (APR) is attracting more and more attention from international business as an area of dynamic economic growth.
ASEAN is an international integration association formed on August 8, 1967 in Bangkok. It includes Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, the Philippines, then Brunei Darussalam (1984), Vietnam (1995), Laos and Myanmar (1997), Cambodia (1999). Papua New Guinea has special observer status. ASEAN is one of the world's largest integration associations, with a combined population of about 636 million people, and the aggregate GDP of the ASEAN countries reaches $ 3.8 trillion (2013).
In the economic sphere, the countries of the Association are pursuing a line on economic integration and liberalization in the region on the basis of the Agreement on the Establishment of the ASEAN Free Trade Area, the Framework Agreement on the ASEAN Investment Zone and the Basic Agreement on the Industrial Cooperation Scheme. In accordance with the long-term development program of ASEAN, developed by an expert group consisting of leading politicians and scientists, military leaders and businessmen, it is envisaged to achieve a level of higher integration in ASEAN than in the European Union, i.e. full integration of the state banking sector, the armed forces and police, foreign policy and scientific and technological departments and other governing bodies.
Russia is showing particular interest in cooperation with the ASEAN bloc, as well as the ASEAN countries in partnership with our country in the most different areas... This was confirmed by the first ever Russia-ASEAN summit held on December 13, 2005 in the capital of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. The main result of this summit was the signing of the Declaration on Comprehensive Partnership between Russia and the ASEAN Member States, which includes, as an integral part, the Comprehensive Program of Action for the Development of Cooperation for 2006-2015. in the political, economic, military-technical and cultural fields.
At the same summit, the question of creating a new inter-country organization - East Asian Cooperation, or, as it is also called, Club 16 - was raised.
APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation).
Rather active efforts are being made to develop international cooperation within the framework of the APEC forum, formed in November 1989. At the initial stage, it functioned as a ministerial meeting. Since 1993, regular meetings of heads of state and government have been held. Currently, 21 countries are participating in the forum: Australia, Brunei, Vietnam, Hong Kong (as a special zone of China), Indonesia, Canada, China, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Republic of China, Russia , Singapore, USA, Thailand, Philippines, Chile, Japan. Thus, countries with a very significant and growing economic potential are represented in it.
But its character, goals, and even the composition of APEC participants looks rather atypical. This economic association was created by states that are very different from each other in terms and levels of economic development, economic structures, traditions, ideology and even the psychology of people. However, developed and developing countries cooperate here as equal partners. More than 2.5 billion people live in the APEC member countries, the combined GDP of these countries exceeds $ 26 trillion. They account for more than 50% of world trade.
Russia traditionally attaches special importance to the development of relations with the APR states. Such attention is due to the direct belonging of our country to this dynamically developing region, the need for the economic recovery of Siberia and Of the Far East... Russia seeks to intensify its cooperation with the main integration structures of the region, including APEC. At the APEC summit held in November 2009 in Singapore, the heads of 21 APEC member countries signed and announced a Declaration, which indicated their intention to create in the near future a free trade zone in the Pacific economic space from Chile to China.
CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States)... After the collapse of the USSR, the young states began to feel acutely the insufficient development of the productive forces, the increasing dependence of their economies on the West. By joining forces in the fight against the unequal division of labor, the former republics of the USSR are striving for fairer economic relations. After the collapse of the USSR, the Commonwealth of Independent States, the CIS, was called upon to solve these new problems.
A very important integrating factor within the CIS is the presence of a jointly created, unified and integral infrastructure (transport, energy, communication systems). Violation of the unity of the infrastructure that existed in the USSR excludes the possibility of its effective exploitation for each of the states of the post-Soviet space. Of great importance are fixed assets created according to uniform technical and economic conditions and state standards, general system training of specialists and scientific personnel in all spheres of the economy. One of the main integrating factors remains the need to restore and develop closer trade and economic cooperation within the CIS.
The lack of realization of the potential for mutual cooperation is one of the main reasons for the low share of the CIS in the main indicators of the world's leading integration associations.
TO early XXI v. The CIS failed to fundamentally solve many vital tasks, including the organization of qualitatively new economic relations between sovereign states, the formation and preservation of a common economic space.
In October 2000, in Astana (Kazakhstan), the Presidents of Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan signed the Treaty on the Establishment of the Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC), which is not only a form of legal and organizational registration of the unification of five states, but also the basis for the translation of their interstate cooperation to a new level. The community is formed on the basis of the experience of cooperation accumulated by partners in the trade, economic, social and humanitarian fields and the previously developed regulatory and legal framework. The goals of the EurAsEC are proclaimed: effective promotion of the process of strengthening the Customs Union and the common economic space, the implementation of other tasks defined in the basic documents previously signed by the parties.
The EurAsEC existed from 2001 to 2014 and, in general, positively contributed to the formation of the Customs Union and the Common Economic Space of the participating countries. The EurAsEC was liquidated due to the establishment of the Eurasian Economic Union (ELES) as part of Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia (August 12, 2015.
Kyrgyzstan joined it). The Treaty on the EAEU provides that it provides freedom of movement of goods, services, capital, labor, as well as the implementation of a single, agreed or coordinated policy in various sectors of the economy.
So, the intercountry integration associations formed in different years of the last century in the regional economic spaces of the five continents of the world in the 21st century. continue to develop and strengthen their political and economic positions. As they grow in quantity and quality, their role in the new global economy this century. Countries that are members of one of the integration unions will find it easier to jointly overcome the global financial and economic crises.