The invention of atomic energy. Educational program: How to get atomic energy. Nuclear energy nuclear energy

University of Management "
Department of Innovation Management
by discipline: "Concepts of modern natural science"
Presentation on the topic: Nuclear
energy: its essence and
use in technology and
technologies

Presentation plan

Introduction
Nuclear power.
History of the discovery of nuclear energy
Nuclear reactor: history of creation, structure,
basic principles, classification of reactors
Areas of use of nuclear energy
Conclusion
Sources used

Introduction

Energy is the most important sector of the national economy,
covering energy resources, generation, transformation,
transfer and use different types energy. This is the basis
economy of the state.
The world is in the process of industrialization, which requires
additional consumption of materials, which increases energy consumption.
With the growth of the population, the energy consumption for soil cultivation increases,
harvesting, fertilizer production, etc.
Currently, many natural resources are readily available
planets are running out. It is necessary to extract raw materials for a large
depth or offshore. Limited world reserves
oil and gas seemingly put humanity in front of the prospect
energy crisis.
However, the use of nuclear energy gives humanity
the possibility of avoiding this, since the results of fundamental
nuclear physics research helps to ward off the threat
energy crisis by using the energy released
in some reactions of atomic nuclei

Nuclear power

Nuclear energy (atomic energy) is energy,
contained in atomic nuclei and released
in nuclear reactions. Nuclear power plants,
generating this energy, produce 13-14%
world production of electrical energy. ...

History of the discovery of nuclear energy

1895 V.K. Roentgen discovers ionizing radiation (X-rays)
1896 A. Becquerel discovers the phenomena of radioactivity.
1898 M. Sklodovskaya and P. Curie discover radioactive elements
Po (Polonium) and Ra (Radium).
1913 N. Bohr develops the theory of the structure of atoms and molecules.
1932 J. Chadwick discovers neutrons.
1939 O. Hahn and F. Strassmann investigate the fission of U nuclei under the action of
slow neutrons.
December 1942 - Self-sustaining
controlled chain reaction of nuclear fission at the SR-1 reactor (Group
physicists at the University of Chicago, head E. Fermi).
December 25, 1946 - The first Soviet F-1 reactor was put into operation
critical condition (a group of physicists and engineers led by
I.V. Kurchatova)
1949 - The first Pu production reactor is put into operation
June 27, 1954 - The world's first nuclear power plant was commissioned
a power plant with an electric capacity of 5 MW in Obninsk.
By the beginning of the 90s, more than 430 nuclear
power reactors with a total capacity of approx. 340 GW.

The history of the creation of a nuclear reactor

Enrico Fermi (1901-1954)
Kurchatov I.V. (1903-1960)
1942 in the USA, under the leadership of E. Fermi, the first
nuclear reactor.
1946 the first Soviet reactor was launched under the supervision of
Academician I.V. Kurchatov.

NPP reactor design (simplified)

Main elements:
The core with nuclear fuel and
retarder;
Neutron reflector surrounding
active zone;
Heat carrier;
Chain reaction control system,
including emergency protection
Radiation protection
Remote control system
The main characteristic of the reactor is
its output power.
Power in 1 MW - 3 1016 divisions
in 1 sec.
Schematic arrangement of a nuclear power plant
Sectional view of a heterogeneous reactor

Nuclear reactor structure

Neutron multiplication factor

Characterizes the rapidity of the growth of the number
neutrons and is equal to the ratio of the number
neutrons in any one generation
chain reaction to the number that spawned them
neutrons of the previous generation.
k \u003d Si / Si-1
k<1 – Реакция затухает
k \u003d 1 - The reaction proceeds stationary
k \u003d 1.006 - Controllability limit
reactions
k\u003e 1.01 - Explosion (for a reactor on
thermal neutron energy release
will grow 20,000 times per second).
A typical course of a chain reaction for uranium;

10. The reactor is controlled by rods containing cadmium or boron.

The following types of rods are distinguished (according to the purpose of use):
Compensating rods - compensate for the initial excess
reactivity, advance as fuel burns out; up to 100
pieces
Control rods - to maintain critical
states at any time, to stop, start
reactor; some
Note: The following types of rods are distinguished (by purpose
applications):
Regulating and compensating rods are optional
are various elements in terms of constructive
registration
Emergency rods - dropped by gravity
to the central part of the core; some. Can
additionally, some of the control rods are also dumped.

11. Classification of nuclear reactors by neutron spectrum

Thermal reactor ("thermal reactor")
A moderator of fast neutrons (water, graphite, beryllium) to thermal
energies (fractions of eV).
Small losses of neutrons in the moderator and structural materials \u003d\u003e
natural and low-enriched uranium can be used as fuel.
High-power power reactors can use uranium with high
enrichment - up to 10%.
A large reactivity margin is required.
Fast reactor ("fast reactor")
Uranium carbide UC, PuO2, etc. are used as a moderator and retardation
neutrons are much less (0.1-0.4 MeV).
Only highly enriched uranium can be used as fuel. But
at the same time, the efficiency of fuel use is 1.5 times higher.
A neutron reflector (238U, 232Th) is required. They return to the core
fast neutrons with energies above 0.1 MeV. Neutrons captured by 238U, 232Th nuclei,
spent on the production of fissile nuclei 239Pu and 233U.
The choice of construction materials is not limited to the absorption cross section.
much less reactivity.
Intermediate neutron reactor
Fast neutrons are slowed down to an energy of 1-1000 eV before absorption.
High loading of nuclear fuel in comparison with thermal reactors
neutrons.
It is impossible to carry out an expanded reproduction of nuclear fuel, as in
fast neutron reactor.

12. By fuel placement

Homogeneous reactors - fuel and moderator represent homogeneous
mixture
Nuclear fuel is in the reactor core in the form
homogeneous mixture: solutions of uranium salts; suspensions of uranium oxides in
light and heavy water; solid moderator impregnated with uranium;
molten salts. Variants of homogeneous reactors with
gaseous fuel (gaseous uranium compounds) or suspension
uranium dust in gas.
The heat released in the core is removed by the coolant (water,
gas, etc.) moving through pipes through the core; either a mixture
fuel with a moderator itself serves as a coolant,
circulating through heat exchangers.
Not widely used (High corrosion of structural
materials in liquid fuel, the complexity of the design of reactors for
solid mixtures, more loading of low-enriched uranium
fuel, etc.)
Heterogeneous reactors - fuel is placed in the core discretely in
the form of blocks between which there is a moderator
The main feature is the presence of fuel elements
(TVELs). Fuel rods can have different shape (rods, plates
etc.), but always exists clear border between the fuel,
moderator, coolant, etc.
The vast majority of reactors in use today are
heterogeneous, due to their design advantages in
compared to homogeneous reactors.

13. By the nature of use

Name
Appointment
Power
Experimental
reactors
Study of various physical quantities,
the values \u200b\u200bof which are necessary for
design and operation of nuclear
reactors.
~ 103W
Research
reactors
Fluxes of neutrons and γ-quanta generated in
the core are used for
research in the field of nuclear physics,
solid state physics, radiation chemistry,
biology, for testing materials,
designed to work in intensive
neutron fluxes (including details of nuclear
reactors) for the production of isotopes.
<107Вт
Standing out
i am energy like
usually not
used by
Isotope reactors
For the production of isotopes used in
nuclear weapons, for example, 239Pu, and in
industry.
~ 103W
Energy
reactors
To obtain electrical and thermal
energy used in power engineering, at
desalination of water, to drive power
installations of ships, etc.
Up to 3-5 109W

14. Assembly of a heterogeneous reactor

In a heterogeneous reactor, nuclear fuel is distributed in an active
zone discretely in the form of blocks, between which there is
neutron moderator

15. Heavy water nuclear reactor

Dignity
Smaller absorption cross section
neutrons \u003d\u003e Improved
neutron balance \u003d\u003e
Use as
natural uranium fuel
Possibility of creating
industrial heavy water
reactors for production
tritium and plutonium, and
a wide range of isotopic
products, including
medical purposes.
disadvantages
The high cost of deuterium

16. Natural nuclear reactor

In nature, under conditions similar to
artificial reactor, can
create zones of natural
nuclear reactor.
The only known natural
nuclear reactor existed 2 billion
years ago in the Oklo region (Gabon).
Origin: a very rich vein of uranium ores gets water from
surface, which plays the role of a neutron moderator. Random
decay starts a chain reaction. With its active course, the water boils away,
the reaction weakens - self-regulation.
The reaction lasted ~ 100,000 years. Now this is impossible due to
depleted by natural decay of uranium reserves.
Surveys are carried out on the ground to study migration
isotopes - important for the development of underground disposal techniques
radioactive waste.

17. Areas of use of nuclear energy

Nuclear power plant
Scheme of the operation of a nuclear power plant on a double-circuit
pressurized water power reactor (VVER)

18.

In addition to nuclear power plants, nuclear reactors are used:
on nuclear icebreakers
on nuclear submarines;
when operating nuclear missile
engines (in particular on AMC).

19. Nuclear energy in space

space probe
"Cassini", created by
the NASA and ESA project,
launched on 15.10.1997 for
research on a number
objects of the Solar
systems.
Power generation
carried out by three
radioisotope
thermoelectric
generators: "Cassini"
carries 30 kg 238Pu on board,
which, decaying,
gives off heat,
convertible to
electricity

20. Spaceship "Prometheus 1"

NASA is developing a nuclear reactor,
able to work under conditions
weightlessness.
The goal is to supply power to the space
ship "Prometheus 1" according to the project
search for life on the moons of Jupiter.

21. Bomb. The principle of uncontrolled nuclear reaction.

The only physical need is to receive critical
masses for k\u003e 1.01. No control system development required -
cheaper than nuclear power plants.
Cannon method
When combined, two subcritical uranium ingots exceed
critical. The enrichment degree of 235U is at least 80%.
This type of bomb "kid" was dropped on Hiroshima 06/08/45 8:15
(78-240 thousand killed, 140 thousand died within 6 months.)

22. Explosive crimp method

A plutonium-based bomb, which using a complex
system of simultaneous detonation of conventional explosives is compressed to
supercritical size.
A bomb of this type "Fat Man" was dropped on Nagasaki
09/08/45 11:02
(75 thousand killed and wounded).

23. Conclusion

The energy problem is one of the most important problems that
today mankind has to decide. Such
advances in science and technology, as a means of instant communication, fast
transport, space exploration. But it all requires
huge energy consumption.
The sharp increase in energy production and consumption has brought forward a new
an acute problem of environmental pollution, which is
a serious danger to humanity.
World energy needs in the coming decades
will increase intensively. No single source of energy
will be able to provide them, therefore it is necessary to develop all sources
energy and efficient use of energy resources.
At the next stage of energy development (the first decades of the XXI century)
the most promising will remain coal power and nuclear
power engineering with thermal and fast neutron reactors. However, you can
hope that humanity will not stop on the path of progress,
associated with the consumption of energy in increasing quantities.

Nuclear energy is a terrible and at the same time wonderful power. During radioactive decay and nuclear reactions occurring in atoms, an enormous amount of energy is released that people are trying to use. They are trying because the development of nuclear power not only resulted in many casualties, but also catastrophes (for example, the Chernobyl nuclear power plant). Nevertheless, nuclear power plants around the world are operational and produce about 15 percent of the world's electricity. There are nuclear reactors in 31 countries of the world. Also ships and submarines are equipped with nuclear reactors. In any case, the attitude towards nuclear energy and, in general, everything related to nuclear decay (as opposed to fusion) is getting worse every year. The day will come when the energy of the atom will be extremely peaceful.

In the latest episodes of the HBO series "Chernobyl", Russian scientists reveal the truth about the reason for the explosion of the reactor of the 4th power unit of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, which subsequently "dusted" the territory of 17 European countries with a total area of \u200b\u200b207.5 thousand square kilometers with radioactive cesium. The disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant exposed fundamental flaws in the RBMK-1000 reactor. Despite this, today 10 RBMK-1000 reactors are still operating in Russia. Are they safe? According to Western experts in nuclear physics, who shared their views with Live Science, this question remains open.

The use of nuclear energy in modern world turns out to be so important that if we woke up tomorrow and the energy of a nuclear reaction disappeared, the world as we know it would probably cease to exist. Peaceful is the basis of industrial production and life in countries such as France and Japan, Germany and Great Britain, the United States and Russia. And if the last two countries are still able to replace nuclear energy sources with thermal power plants, then for France or Japan this is simply impossible.

The use of atomic energy poses many problems. Basically, all these problems are associated with the fact that using the binding energy of the atomic nucleus (which we call nuclear energy) for his own benefit, a person receives significant evil in the form of highly radioactive waste that cannot be simply thrown away. Waste from nuclear energy sources needs to be processed, transported, disposed of, and stored for a long time in safe conditions.

Pros and cons, benefits and harms of using nuclear energy

Consider the pros and cons of the use of atomic-nuclear energy, their benefits, harm and significance in the life of Mankind. It is obvious that today only industrialized countries need nuclear energy. That is, the main application of peaceful nuclear energy is found mainly at such facilities as factories, processing plants, etc. It is energy-intensive industries that are remote from sources of cheap electricity (such as hydroelectric power plants) that use nuclear power plants to ensure and develop their internal processes.

Agrarian regions and cities do not need nuclear energy too much. It is quite possible to replace it with heat and other stations. It turns out that the acquisition, acquisition, development, production and use of nuclear energy is mainly aimed at meeting our needs for industrial products. Let's see what kind of production it is: the automotive industry, military production, metallurgy, chemical industry, oil and gas complex, etc.

Does a modern man want to drive a new car? Want to dress in trendy synthetics, eat synthetics and pack everything in synthetics? Would you like bright products in different shapes and sizes? Wants more and more new phones, TVs, computers? Want to buy a lot, often change equipment around him? Would you like to eat delicious chemical food from colored packaging? Want to live in peace? Want to hear sweet speeches from the TV screen? Want to have a lot of tanks, as well as missiles and cruisers, as well as shells and guns?

And he gets it all. It doesn't matter that in the end the discrepancy between word and deed leads to war. It doesn't matter that energy is also needed to recycle it. So far, the person is calm. He eats, drinks, goes to work, sells and buys.

And all this requires energy. It also requires a lot of oil, gas, metal, etc. And all these industrial processes require nuclear energy. Therefore, whoever says anything, until the first industrial fusion reactor is put into production, nuclear power will only develop.

In the pluses of nuclear energy, we can safely write down everything that we are used to. On the downside - the sad prospect of imminent death in the collapse of resource depletion, nuclear waste problems, population growth and degradation of arable land. In other words, atomic energy allowed man to begin to master nature even more strongly, forcing it beyond measure to such an extent that in several decades he overcame the threshold of reproduction of basic resources, starting between 2000 and 2010 the process of collapse of consumption. This process objectively no longer depends on the person.

Everyone will have to eat less, live less and enjoy less. the surrounding nature... Here lies another plus or minus of atomic energy, which lies in the fact that the countries that have mastered the atom will be able to more effectively redistribute the scarce resources of those who have not mastered the atom to themselves. Moreover, only the development of the thermonuclear fusion program will allow humanity to survive elementary. Now let us explain on our fingers what kind of "beast" it is - atomic (nuclear) energy and what it is eaten with.

Mass, matter and atomic (nuclear) energy

One often hears the statement that "mass and energy are one and the same", or such judgments that the expression E \u003d mc2 explains the explosion of an atomic (nuclear) bomb. Now that you have a first understanding of nuclear energy and its applications, it would be truly unwise to confuse you with statements such as "mass equals energy." In any case, this way of interpreting the great discovery is not the best. Apparently, this is just the wit of young reformists, the "Galileans of the new era." In fact, the prediction of the theory, which has been verified by many experiments, says only that energy has mass.

Now we will explain the modern point of view and give a small overview of the history of its development.
When the energy of any material body increases, its mass increases, and we attribute this additional mass to the increase in energy. For example, when radiation is absorbed, the absorber becomes hotter and its mass increases. However, the increase is so small that it remains outside the limits of measurement accuracy in conventional experiments. On the contrary, if a substance emits radiation, then it loses a drop of its mass, which is carried away by the radiation. A broader question arises: is not the entire mass of matter due to energy, i.e., is there not a huge store of energy in all matter? Many years ago, radioactive transformations responded positively to this. When a radioactive atom decays, a huge amount of energy is released (mainly in the form of kinetic energy), and a small part of the atom's mass disappears. This is clearly indicated by measurements. Thus, the energy carries away the mass, thereby reducing the mass of the substance.

Consequently, part of the mass of a substance is interchangeable with the mass of radiation, kinetic energy, etc. That is why we say: "energy and matter are partially capable of mutual transformations." Moreover, we can now create particles of matter that have mass and are able to completely transform into radiation, which also has mass. The energy of this radiation can pass into other forms, transferring its mass to them. Conversely, radiation is capable of transforming into particles of matter. So instead of "energy has mass" we can say "particles of matter and radiation are mutually convertible, and therefore capable of mutual transformations with other forms of energy." This is the creation and destruction of matter. Such destructive events cannot occur in the realm of ordinary physics, chemistry and technology; they should be looked for either in microscopic but active processes studied by nuclear physics, or in the high-temperature furnace of atomic bombs, on the Sun and stars. However, it would be unreasonable to say that "energy is mass." We say: "energy, like matter, has mass."

Mass of an ordinary substance

We say that the mass of ordinary matter is fraught with a huge store of internal energy, equal to the product of mass by (the speed of light) 2. But this energy is contained in the mass and cannot be released without the disappearance of at least part of it. How did such an amazing idea come about and why was it not discovered earlier? It was proposed before - experiment and theory in different forms - but until the twentieth century, the change in energy was not observed, because in ordinary experiments it corresponds to an incredibly small change in mass. However, we are now confident that the projectile has additional mass due to its kinetic energy. Even at a speed of 5000 m / s, a bullet that weighed exactly 1 g at rest will have a total mass of 1.00000000001 g. White-hot platinum weighing 1 kg will add 0.000000000004 kg in total, and practically no weighing will be able to register these changes. It is only when huge reserves of energy are released from the atomic nucleus, or when the atomic "projectiles" are accelerated to a speed close to the speed of light, does the mass of energy become noticeable.

On the other hand, even a subtle mass difference signifies the possibility of releasing a huge amount of energy. Thus, hydrogen and helium atoms have relative masses of 1.008 and 4.004. If four hydrogen nuclei could combine into one helium nucleus, the mass of 4.032 would change to 4.004. The difference is small, only 0.028, or 0.7%. But it would mean a gigantic release of energy (mainly in the form of radiation). 4.032 kg of hydrogen would give 0.028 kg of radiation, which would have an energy of about 600,000,000,000 Cal.

Compare this to 140,000 Cal, which is released when the same amount of hydrogen combines with oxygen in a chemical explosion.
Conventional kinetic energy makes a significant contribution to the mass of very fast protons produced by cyclotrons, and this creates difficulties when working with such machines.

Why do we still believe that E \u003d mc2

Now we perceive this as a direct consequence of the theory of relativity, but the first suspicions arose already towards the end of the 19th century, in connection with the properties of radiation. Then it seemed likely that radiation has mass. And since radiation carries, as on wings, at a speed with energy, or rather, it is energy itself, an example of a mass that belongs to something "immaterial" has appeared. The experimental laws of electromagnetism predicted that electromagnetic waves must have "mass." But before the creation of the theory of relativity, only unbridled imagination could extend the ratio m \u003d E / c2 to other forms of energy.

All types of electromagnetic radiation (radio waves, infrared, visible and ultraviolet light, etc.) have some common features: they all propagate in the void at the same speed and they all carry energy and momentum. We imagine light and other radiation in the form of waves propagating with a high, but definite speed with \u003d 3 * 108 m / sec. When light hits the absorbing surface, heat is generated, indicating that the stream of light is carrying energy. This energy must propagate along with the flow at the same speed of light. In fact, the speed of light is measured in this way: by the time of flight of a portion of light energy of a long distance.

When light strikes the surface of certain metals, it knocks out electrons, escaping in the same way as if they were hit by a compact ball. , apparently, spreads in concentrated portions, which we call "quanta". This is the quantum nature of the radiation, despite the fact that these portions, apparently, are created by waves. Each portion of light with the same wavelength has the same energy, determined by a "quantum" of energy. Such portions rush at the speed of light (in fact, they are light), transferring energy and momentum (impulse). All this makes it possible to ascribe a certain mass to radiation - a certain mass is attributed to each portion.

When light is reflected from a mirror, heat is not released, because the reflected beam carries away all the energy, but the mirror is affected by a pressure similar to the pressure of elastic balls or molecules. If, instead of a mirror, light hits a black absorbing surface, the pressure becomes half as much. This indicates that the beam carries the momentum of the mirror. Therefore, light behaves as if it had mass. But is it possible to know from somewhere else that something has mass? Does mass exist in its own right, like length, green, or water? Or is it an artificial concept defined by behavior like Modesty? Mass, in fact, is known to us in three forms:

A. A vague statement characterizing the amount of "substance" (from this point of view, mass is inherent in substance - an entity that we can see, touch, push).
B. Certain statements linking it with other physical quantities.
B. Mass is conserved.

It remains to determine mass in terms of momentum and energy. Then any moving thing with momentum and energy must have "mass". Its mass should be (momentum) / (speed).

Theory of relativity

The desire to link together a series of experimental paradoxes concerning absolute space and time gave rise to the theory of relativity. Two kinds of experiments with light produced conflicting results, and experiments with electricity exacerbated this conflict even further. Then Einstein suggested changing the simple geometric rules for vector addition. This change is the essence of his "special theory of relativity."

For low speeds (from the slowest snail to the fastest of the rockets), the new theory is consistent with the old one.
At high speeds, comparable to the speed of light, our measurement of lengths or time is modified by the movement of the body relative to the observer, in particular, the body's mass becomes the greater the faster it moves.

Then the theory of relativity proclaimed that this increase in mass was completely general. At normal speeds, there is no change, and only at a speed of 100,000,000 km / h does the mass increase by 1%. However, for electrons and protons emitted from radioactive atoms or modern accelerators, it reaches 10, 100, 1000%…. Experiments with such high-energy particles perfectly confirm the relationship between mass and velocity.

On the other edge, there is radiation that has no rest mass. It is not a substance and cannot be kept at rest; it just has mass, and moves at a speed of c, so its energy is mc2. We talk about quanta as photons when we want to note the behavior of light as a stream of particles. Each photon has a certain mass m, a certain energy E \u003d mc2 and a momentum (momentum).

Nuclear transformations

In some experiments with nuclei, atomic masses after violent explosions do not add up to give the same total mass. The released energy carries with it some part of the mass; it seems that the missing piece of atomic material has disappeared. However, if we assign the measured energy mass E / c2, we find that the mass is conserved.

Annihilation of matter

We are accustomed to thinking of mass as an inevitable property of matter; therefore, the transition of mass from matter to radiation - from a lamp to an escaping ray of light looks almost like the destruction of matter. One more step - and we will be surprised to discover what is really happening: positive and negative electrons, particles of matter, combining together, completely transform into radiation. The mass of their substance is converted into an equal mass of radiation. This is a case of the disappearance of matter in the most literal sense. As in focus, in a flash of light.

Measurements show that (energy, radiation during annihilation) / c2 is equal to the total mass of both electrons - positive and negative. An antiproton, combining with a proton, annihilates, usually with the release of lighter particles with high kinetic energy.

Creation of substance

Now that we have learned to manage high-energy radiation (ultra-shortwave X-rays), we can prepare particles of matter from the radiation. If such beams are bombarded with a target, they sometimes give off a pair of particles, for example, positive and negative electrons. And if we again use the formula m \u003d E / c2 for both radiation and kinetic energy, then the mass will be conserved.

Simply complicated - Nuclear (Atomic) energy

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The dependence of the binding energy per nucleon on the number of nucleons in the nucleus is shown in the graph.

The energy it takes to split a nucleus into individual nucleons is called binding energy. The binding energy per nucleon is not the same for different chemical elements and even isotopes of the same chemical element. The specific binding energy of a nucleon in a nucleus fluctuates, on average, in the range from 1 MeV for light nuclei (deuterium) to 8.6 MeV for nuclei of average weight (A≈100). In heavy nuclei (A≈200), the specific binding energy of a nucleon is less than that of nuclei of average weight, by approximately 1 MeV, so that their transformation into nuclei of average weight (division into 2 parts) is accompanied by the release of energy in an amount of about 1 MeV per nucleon, or about 200 MeV per nucleus. The transformation of light nuclei into heavier nuclei gives an even greater energy gain per nucleon. So, for example, the reaction of the combination of deuterium and tritium

1 D² + 1 T³ → 2 He 4 + 0 n 1

accompanied by the release of energy 17.6 MeV, that is, 3.5 MeV per nucleon.

Release of nuclear energy

Exothermic nuclear reactions are known that release nuclear energy.

Usually, to obtain nuclear energy, a nuclear chain reaction of fission of uranium-235 or plutonium nuclei is used. Nuclei fission when a neutron hits them, and new neutrons and fission fragments are produced. Fission neutrons and fission fragments have high kinetic energy. As a result of collisions of fragments with other atoms, this kinetic energy is quickly converted into heat.

Another way of releasing nuclear energy is thermonuclear fusion. In this case, two nuclei of light elements are combined into one heavy one. Such processes take place on the Sun.

Many atomic nuclei are unstable. Over time, some of these nuclei spontaneously transform into other nuclei, releasing energy. This phenomenon is called radioactive decay.

The use of nuclear energy

The energy of fusion is used in a hydrogen bomb.

Notes (edit)

Literature

Clarfield, Gerald H. and William M. Wiecek (1984). Nuclear America: Military and Civilian Nuclear Power in the United States 1940-1980, Harper & Row.
Cooke, Stephanie (2009). In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age, Black Inc.
Cravens gwyneth Power to Save the World: the Truth about Nuclear Energy. - New York: Knopf, 2007 .-- ISBN 0-307-26656-7
Elliott, David (2007). Nuclear or Not? Does Nuclear Power Have a Place in a Sustainable Energy Future?, Palgrave.
Falk, Jim (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press.
Ferguson, Charles D., (2007). Nuclear Energy: Balancing Benefits and Risks Council on Foreign Relations.
Herbst, Alan M. and George W. Hopley (2007). Nuclear Energy Now: Why the Time has come for the World's Most Misunderstood Energy Source, Wiley.
Schneider, Mycle, Steve Thomas, Antony Froggatt, Doug Koplow (August 2009). The World Nuclear Industry Status Report, German Federal Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Reactor Safety.
Walker, J. Samuel (1992). Containing the Atom: Nuclear Regulation in a Changing Environment, 1993-1971
Walker, J. Samuel (2004). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective, Berkeley: University of California Press.
Weart, Spencer R. The Rise of Nuclear Fear... Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012. ISBN 0-674-05233-1

Nuclear technology
Engineering
Materials (edit)
Nuclear power
Nuclear medicine
Nuclear weapon

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See what "Nuclear energy" is in other dictionaries:

- (atomic energy) internal energy of atomic nuclei released during nuclear transformations (nuclear reactions). the binding energy of the nucleus. mass defect Nucleons (protons and neutrons) are firmly held in the nucleus nuclear forces... To remove a nucleon from the nucleus, ... ...

- (atomic energy), int. energy at. nuclei released during nuclear transformations. The energy to which it is necessary to spend for the splitting of the nucleus into its constituent nucleons is called. the binding energy of the nucleus? This is max. energy, towards paradise can be released. ... ... Physical encyclopedia

NUCLEAR ENERGY, ENERGY released during a nuclear reaction as a result of the transition of MASS to energy as described in the equation: E \u003d mc2 (where E is energy, m is mass, with the speed of light); it was deduced by A. Einstein in his THEORY OF RELATIVITY. ... ... Scientific and technical encyclopedic dictionary

NUCLEAR POWER - (atomic energy) see () () ... Big Polytechnic Encyclopedia

Modern encyclopedia

- (atm energy) internal energy of atomic nuclei released during some nuclear transformations. The use of nuclear energy is based on the implementation of chain reactions of fission of heavy nuclei and reactions of thermonuclear fusion of light nuclei ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

Nuclear power - (atomic energy), the internal energy of atomic nuclei, released during some nuclear reactions. The use of nuclear energy is based on the implementation of chain reactions of fission of heavy nuclei and reactions of thermonuclear synthesis of light nuclei (see ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Internal energy of an atomic nucleus associated with the movement and interaction of nucleons (neutrons and protons) forming the nucleus. It is released during radioactive decay or nuclear fission and fusion reactions. Rapid release of nuclear energy ... ... Marine vocabulary

When German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann first succeeded in fissioning a uranium nucleus by neutron irradiation in 1938, they were in no hurry to inform the public about the scale of their discovery. These experiments laid the foundation for the use of atomic energy, both for peaceful and military purposes.

A byproduct of the atomic bomb

Otto Hahn, who collaborated with the Austrian physicist Lisa Meitner before his emigration in 1938, was well aware that the fission of a uranium nucleus — an unstoppable chain reaction — meant an atomic bomb. The United States, striving to get ahead of Germany in creating nuclear weapons, began the Manhattan Project, an enterprise of unprecedented proportions. Three cities have sprung up in the Nevada desert. 40,000 people worked here in deep secrecy. Under the leadership of Robsrg Oppenheimer, “the father atomic bomb", In record time there were about 40 research institutions, laboratories and factories. For plutonium mining, the first nuclear reactor was built under the podium of the University of Chicago football stadium. Here, under the leadership of Enrico Fermi, the first controlled self-sustaining chain reaction was launched in 1942. At that time no useful application was found for the heat released as a result.

Electrical energy from a nuclear reaction

In 1954, the first nuclear power plant in the world was launched in the USSR. It was located in Obninsk, about 100 km from Moscow, and had a capacity of 5 MW. In 1956, the first large nuclear reactor began operation in the English town of Calder Hall. This nuclear power plant was gas-cooled, which ensured relatively safe operation. But in the world market, the pressurized water-cooled water-cooled nuclear reactors developed in the USA in 1957 have become more widespread. Such plants can be built at relatively low costs, but their reliability is poor. At the Ukrainian nuclear power plant Chernobyl, the melting of the reactor core led to an explosion with the release of radioactive substances into environment... The catastrophe that led to death and serious illnesses thousands of people, led, especially in Europe, many protests against the use of atomic energy.

1896: Henri Bequerel discovered radioactive radiation from uranium.
Chapter 1919 Ernest Rutherford for the first time succeeded in the art of causing a nuclear reaction by bombarding nitrogen atoms with alpha particles, which was converted into oxygen.
1932: James Chadwick discovers neutrons by bombarding beryllium atoms with alpha particles.
19.38: Otto Hahn for the first time achieves a chain reaction in the laboratory, splitting the uranium nucleus with neutrons.