Climatic features. What climate is typical for Russia: arctic, subarctic, temperate and subtropical. What is climate

Climate- this is a long-term weather regime typical for a particular area. It manifests itself in the regular change of all types of weather observed in this area.

The climate affects the living and inanimate nature... Water bodies, soil, vegetation, animals are closely dependent on the climate. Certain sectors of the economy, primarily agriculture, are also highly dependent on the climate.

The climate is formed as a result of the interaction of many factors: the amount of solar radiation entering the earth's surface; circulation of the atmosphere; the nature of the underlying surface. At the same time, climatic factors themselves depend on the geographical conditions of a given area, primarily on geographic latitude.

The geographic latitude of the area determines the angle of incidence of the sun's rays, the receipt of a certain amount of heat. However, getting heat from the Sun also depends on proximity to the ocean... In places far from the oceans, there is little precipitation, and the mode of precipitation is uneven (more in the warm period than in the cold), the cloudiness is low, the winter is cold, the summer is warm, the annual temperature amplitude is large. This climate is called continental because it is typical for places located in the interior of continents. Above the water surface, a maritime climate is formed, which is characterized by: a smooth course of air temperature, with small daily and annual temperature ranges, large cloud cover, uniform and sufficiently large amount of atmospheric precipitation.

The climate is greatly influenced by sea ​​currents... Warm currents warm the atmosphere in the areas where they flow. For example, the warm North Atlantic Current creates favorable conditions for the growth of forests in the southern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, while most of Greenland, which lies at about the same latitudes as the Scandinavian Peninsula, but is outside the zone of influence of the warm current, all year round covered with a thick layer of ice.

An important role in the formation of the climate belongs relief... You already know that as the terrain rises, the air temperature decreases by 5-6 ° С for every kilometer. Therefore, on the high mountain slopes of the Pamirs, the average annual temperature is 1 ° C, although it is located slightly north of the tropic.

The location of mountain ranges has a great influence on the climate. For example, the Caucasus Mountains hold back moist sea winds, and significantly more precipitation falls on their windward slopes facing the Black Sea than on the leeward ones. At the same time, the mountains serve as an obstacle to cold northern winds.

The climate is also dependent on prevailing winds... On the territory of the East European Plain, westerly winds coming from the Atlantic Ocean prevail throughout almost the entire year, therefore winters in this area are relatively mild.

The regions of the Far East are under the influence of monsoons. In winter, winds constantly blow from the depths of the mainland. They are cold and very dry, so there is little rainfall. In summer, on the contrary, winds bring a lot of moisture from the Pacific Ocean. In autumn, when the wind from the ocean dies down, the weather is usually sunny and calm. This is the best time of the year in the area.

Climatic characteristics represent statistical inferences from long-term series of weather observations (in temperate latitudes, 25-50-year series are used; in the tropics, their duration may be shorter), primarily over the following main meteorological elements: atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, air temperature and humidity, cloudiness and precipitation. They also take into account the duration of solar radiation, the visibility range, the temperature of the upper layers of the soil and water bodies, the evaporation of water from the earth's surface into the atmosphere, the height and state of the snow cover, various atmospheric phenomena and terrestrial hydrometeors (dew, ice, fog, thunderstorms, blizzards, etc.). In the XX century. the number of climatic indicators included the characteristics of the elements heat balance the earth's surface, such as total solar radiation, radiation balance, heat transfer values ​​between the earth's surface and the atmosphere, heat consumption for evaporation. Complex indicators are also used, i.e. functions of several elements: various coefficients, factors, indices (for example, continentality, aridity, moisture), etc.

Climatic zones

Long-term average values ​​of meteorological elements (annual, seasonal, monthly, daily, etc.), their sums, frequency of occurrence, etc. are called climatic norms: the corresponding values ​​for individual days, months, years, etc. are considered as deviations from these norms.

Climate maps are called climatic(temperature distribution map, pressure distribution map, etc.).

Depending on temperature conditions, prevailing air masses and winds, they emit climatic zones.

The main climatic zones are:

• equatorial;
• two tropical;
• two moderate;
• arctic and antarctic.

Transitional climatic zones are located between the main zones: subequatorial, subtropical, subarctic, subantarctic. In transition zones air masses change with the seasons. They come here from neighboring zones, so the climate of the subequatorial zone in summer is similar to the climate of the equatorial zone, and in winter - to the tropical climate; the climate of the subtropical zones in summer is similar to the climate of the tropical, and in winter - with the climate of the temperate zones. This is due to the seasonal movement of the belts of atmospheric pressure over the globe following the Sun: in summer - to the north, in winter - to the south.

Climatic zones are subdivided into climatic regions ... So, for example, in the tropical belt of Africa, areas of tropical dry and tropical humid climates are distinguished, and in Eurasia, the subtropical belt is subdivided into areas of the Mediterranean, continental and monsoon climates. In mountainous areas, altitudinal zonation is formed due to the fact that the air temperature decreases with height.

The variety of climates on Earth

Climate classification provides an ordered system for characterizing climate types, their regionalization and mapping. Let us give examples of the types of climate prevailing over vast territories (Table 1).

Arctic and Antarctic climatic zones

Antarctic and arctic climate dominates in Greenland and Antarctica, where average monthly temperatures are below 0 ° C. In the dark winter season, these regions do not receive any solar radiation at all, although there are twilight and auroras. Even in summer Sun rays fall on the earth's surface at a slight angle, which reduces the effectiveness of heating. Most of the incoming solar radiation is reflected by ice. Both summer and winter, the elevated regions of the Antarctic Ice Sheet are characterized by low temperatures. The climate of the interior of Antarctica is much colder than the climate of the Arctic, since the southern continent is large and high, and the Arctic Ocean softens the climate, despite the widespread distribution of pack ice. In summer, during short warmings, drifting ice sometimes melts. Precipitation on ice sheets falls in the form of snow or small particles of ice fog. The interior regions receive only 50-125 mm of precipitation annually, but more than 500 mm can fall on the coast. Sometimes cyclones bring clouds and snow to these areas. Snowfalls are often accompanied by strong winds that carry significant amounts of snow, blowing it off the slope. Strong katabatic winds with blizzards blow from the cold ice sheet, carrying snow to the coast.

Table 1. Climates of the Earth

Climate type	Climatic belt	Average temperature, ° С		Mode and amount of atmospheric precipitation, mm	Circulation of the atmosphere	Territory
Equatorial	Equatorial			During a year. 2000	In the area of ​​low atmospheric pressure, warm and humid equatorial air masses are formed	Equatorial regions of Africa, South America and Oceania
Tropical monsoon	Subequa-torial			Mostly during the summer monsoon, 2000		South and Southeast Asia, West and Central Africa, Northern Australia
Tropical dry	Tropical			Throughout the year, 200		North Africa, Central Australia
Mediterranean	Subtropical			Mainly in winter, 500	In summer - anticyclones at high atmospheric pressure; in winter - cyclonic activity	Mediterranean, Southern coast of Crimea, South Africa, Southwest Australia, Western California
Subtropical dry	Subtropical			During a year. 120	Dry continental air masses	Inner parts of the continents
Moderate marine	Moderate			During a year. 1000	Westerly winds	Western Eurasia and North America
Moderate continental	Moderate			During a year. 400	Westerly winds	Inner parts of the continents
Moderate monsoon	Moderate			Mainly during the summer monsoon, 560		Eastern edge of Eurasia
Subarctic	Subarctic			Throughout the year, 200	Cyclones prevail	Northern outskirts of Eurasia and North America
Arctic (antarctic)	Arctic (Antarctic)			Throughout the year, 100	Anticyclones prevail	Arctic Ocean and mainland Australia

Subarctic continental climate formed in the north of the continents (see the climatic map of the atlas). In winter, arctic air prevails here, which forms in areas of high pressure. Arctic air spreads from the Arctic to the eastern regions of Canada.

Continental subrctic climate Asia is characterized by the largest annual amplitude of air temperature on the globe (60-65 ° С). The continentality of the climate here reaches its maximum value.

The average temperature in January varies across the territory from -28 to -50 ° C, and in lowlands and basins, due to stagnation of air, its temperature is even lower. In Oymyakon (Yakutia), a record negative air temperature (-71 ° С) for the Northern Hemisphere was recorded. The air is very dry.

Summer in subarctic belt although short, it is quite warm. The average monthly temperature in July ranges from 12 to 18 ° C (daily maximum - 20-25 ° C). Over the summer, more than half of the annual precipitation falls, amounting to 200-300 mm on the flat territory, and on the windward slopes of the hills - up to 500 mm per year.

The climate of the subarctic belt of North America is less continental in comparison with the corresponding climate in Asia. There are less cold winters and colder summers.

Moderate climatic zone

Moderate climate of the western coasts of the continents has pronounced features of the maritime climate and is characterized by the predominance of sea air masses throughout the year. It is observed on the Atlantic coast of Europe and the Pacific coast of North America. The Cordillera are the natural border separating the maritime coastline from the inland areas. The European coast, except for Scandinavia, is open to free access to maritime temperate air.

The constant transport of sea air is accompanied by large clouds and causes protracted springs, in contrast to the interior of the continental regions of Eurasia.

Winter in temperate the western coasts are warm. The warming influence of the oceans is enhanced by warm sea currents washing the western shores of the continents. The average temperature in January is positive and varies across the territory from north to south from 0 to 6 ° С. During incursions of the Arctic air, it can decrease (on the Scandinavian coast to -25 ° С, and on the French coast - to -17 ° С). When tropical air spreads to the north, the temperature rises sharply (for example, it often reaches 10 ° C). In winter, on the western coast of Scandinavia, there are large positive temperature deviations from the average latitudinal temperature (by 20 ° C). The temperature anomaly on the Pacific coast of North America is less and does not exceed 12 ° C.

Summers are rarely hot. The average temperature in July is 15-16 ° C.

Even during the day, the air temperature rarely exceeds 30 ° C. Due to frequent cyclones, cloudy and rainy weather... There are especially many cloudy days on the west coast of North America, where cyclones are forced to slow down in front of the Cordillera mountain systems. In this regard, the weather regime in the south of Alaska, where there are no seasons in our understanding, is characterized by great uniformity. Eternal autumn reigns there, and only plants remind of the onset of winter or summer. Annual precipitation ranges from 600 to 1000 mm, and on the slopes of mountain ranges - from 2000 to 6000 mm.

In conditions of sufficient moisture on the coasts, broadleaf forests, and in conditions of excess - conifers. The lack of summer heat reduces the upper border of the forest in the mountains to 500-700 m above sea level.

Moderate climate of the eastern coasts of the continents has monsoon features and is accompanied by a seasonal change of winds: in winter, northwestern flows prevail, in summer - southeastern ones. It is well defined on the east coast of Eurasia.

In winter, with a north-westerly wind, cold continental temperate air spreads to the coast of the mainland, which causes a low average temperature winter months(from -20 to -25 ° C). Clear, dry, windy weather prevails. There is little precipitation in the southern regions of the coast. The north of the Amur region, Sakhalin and Kamchatka are often affected by cyclones moving over the Pacific Ocean. Therefore, in winter there is a thick snow cover, especially in Kamchatka, where its maximum height reaches 2 m.

In summer, with a southeasterly wind on the coast of Eurasia, maritime temperate air spreads. Summers are warm, with an average July temperature of 14 to 18 ° C. Precipitation is frequent due to cyclonic activity. Their annual number is 600-1000 mm, with most of them falling in summer. Fogs are frequent at this time of the year.

Unlike Eurasia, the east coast of North America is characterized by marine features climate, which are expressed in the predominance of winter precipitation and the marine type of the annual variation of air temperature: the minimum occurs in February, and the maximum - in August, when the ocean is warmest.

The Canadian anticyclone, in contrast to the Asian, is unstable. It forms off the coast and is often interrupted by cyclones. Winters are mild, snowy, wet and windy here. In snowy winters, the height of snowdrifts reaches 2.5 m. With a southerly wind, ice often occurs. Therefore, some streets in some cities in eastern Canada have iron railings for pedestrians. Summers are cool and rainy. Annual precipitation is 1000 mm.

Moderate continental climate most clearly expressed on the Eurasian continent, especially in the regions of Siberia, Transbaikalia, northern Mongolia, as well as in the Great Plains in North America.

A feature of the temperate continental climate is a large annual amplitude of air temperature, which can reach 50-60 ° C. In the winter months, with a negative radiation balance, the earth's surface is cooled. The cooling effect of the land surface on the surface layers of air is especially great in Asia, where a powerful Asian anticyclone forms in winter and cloudy, calm weather prevails. The temperate continental air forming in the area of ​​the anticyclone has a low temperature (-0 ° ...- 40 ° C). In valleys and basins, due to radiation cooling, the air temperature can drop to -60 ° C.

In the middle of winter, the continental air in the lower layers becomes even colder than the arctic. This very cold air of the Asian anticyclone spreads to Western Siberia, Kazakhstan, southeastern regions of Europe.

The winter Canadian anticyclone is less stable than the Asian anticyclone due to the smaller size of the North American continent. Winters are less severe here, and their severity does not increase towards the center of the mainland, as in Asia, but, on the contrary, decreases somewhat due to the frequent passage of cyclones. Continental temperate air in North America has a higher temperature than continental temperate air in Asia.

On the formation of a continental temperate climate the geographical features of the territory of the continents have a significant impact. In North America, the Cordillera mountain ranges are the natural boundary separating the maritime coastline from the inland continental regions. In Eurasia, a temperate continental climate is formed over a vast land area, approximately from 20 to 120 ° E. e. Unlike North America, Europe is open for free penetration of sea air from the Atlantic deep into the interior regions. This is facilitated not only by the western transport of air masses, which prevails in the temperate latitudes, but also by the flat relief, strong indented coasts and deep penetration into the land of the Baltic and North Seas. Therefore, a temperate climate of a lesser degree of continentality is formed over Europe in comparison with Asia.

In winter, the Atlantic sea air, moving over the cold land surface of the temperate latitudes of Europe, retains its physical properties for a long time, and its influence extends to the whole of Europe. In winter, with the weakening of the Atlantic influence, the air temperature decreases from west to east. In Berlin, it is 0 ° C in January, -3 ° C in Warsaw, and -11 ° C in Moscow. In this case, the isotherms over Europe have a meridional direction.

The wide front of Eurasia and North America facing the Arctic basin contributes to the deep penetration of cold air masses to the continents throughout the year. Intense meridional air mass transfer is especially characteristic of North America, where arctic and tropical air often replace each other.

Tropical air entering the plains of North America with southern cyclones is also slowly transforming due to the high speed of its movement, high moisture content and continuous low clouds.

In winter, the consequence of the intense meridional circulation of air masses is the so-called "jumps" in temperatures, their large day-to-day amplitude, especially in areas where cyclones are frequent: in the north of Europe and Western Siberia, the Great Plains of North America.

In the cold period, it falls in the form of snow, a snow cover forms, which protects the soil from deep freezing and creates a moisture reserve in spring. The depth of the snow cover depends on the duration of its occurrence and the amount of precipitation. In Europe, a stable snow cover on the flat area forms to the east of Warsaw, its maximum height reaches 90 cm in the northeastern regions of Europe and Western Siberia. In the center of the Russian Plain, the height of the snow cover is 30-35 cm, and in Transbaikalia - less than 20 cm.On the plains of Mongolia, in the center of the anticyclonic region, the snow cover is formed only in separate years... The absence of snow, along with low winter air temperatures, leads to the presence of permafrost, which is no longer observed anywhere on the globe at these latitudes.

In North America, on the Great Plains, snow cover is negligible. To the east of the plains, tropical air increasingly begins to take part in frontal processes, it aggravates frontal processes, which causes heavy snowfalls. In the Montreal area, the snow cover lasts up to four months, and its height reaches 90 cm.

Summers in the continental regions of Eurasia are warm. The average July temperature is 18-22 ° C. In the arid regions of southeastern Europe and Central Asia the average air temperature in July reaches 24-28 ° С.

In North America, continental air is somewhat colder in summer than in Asia and Europe. This is due to the lesser extent of the continent in latitude, the large indentedness of its northern part with bays and fjords, the abundance of large lakes, and the more intense development of cyclonic activity in comparison with the inner regions of Eurasia.

In the temperate zone, the annual precipitation on the flat territory of the continents varies from 300 to 800 mm, more than 2000 mm falls on the windward slopes of the Alps. Most of the precipitation falls in summer, which is primarily associated with an increase in the moisture content of the air. In Eurasia, there is a decrease in precipitation across the territory from west to east. In addition, the amount of precipitation also decreases from north to south due to a decrease in the frequency of cyclones and an increase in air dryness in this direction. In North America, a decrease in precipitation across the territory is noted, on the contrary, in the direction to the west. Why do you think?

Most of the land in the continental temperate zone is occupied by mountain systems. These are the Alps, Carpathians, Altai, Sayan, Cordillera, Rocky Mountains, etc. In mountainous regions, climatic conditions differ significantly from the climate of the plains. In summer, the air temperature in the mountains drops rapidly with altitude. In winter, when cold air masses invade, the air temperature in the plains is often lower than in the mountains.

The influence of mountains on precipitation is great. Precipitation increases on windward slopes and at some distance in front of them, and decreases on leeward slopes. For example, differences in annual rainfall between the western and eastern slopes Ural mountains in some places they reach 300 mm. In the mountains, precipitation increases with height to a certain critical level. In the Alps, the level of the greatest amount of precipitation falls at an altitude of about 2000 m, in the Caucasus - 2500 m.

Subtropical climate zone

Continental subtropical climate determined by the seasonal change of temperate and tropical air. The average temperature of the coldest month in Central Asia is below zero in some places, in the northeast of China -5 ...- 10 ° С. The average temperature of the warmest month is in the range of 25-30 ° С, while daily highs can exceed 40-45 ° С.

The most strongly continental climate in the air temperature regime is manifested in the southern regions of Mongolia and in the north of China, where the center of the Asian anticyclone is located in the winter season. Here, the annual amplitude of air temperature is 35-40 ° С.

Sharply continental climate in the subtropical zone for the high-mountainous regions of the Pamirs and Tibet, the height of which is 3.5-4 km. The climate of the Pamirs and Tibet is characterized by cold winters, cool summers and low rainfall.

In North America, a continental arid subtropical climate is formed in closed plateaus and intermontane basins located between the Coastal and Rocky ridges. Summers are hot and dry, especially in the south, where the average July temperature is above 30 ° C. The absolute maximum temperature can reach 50 ° C and above. In Death Valley, a temperature of +56.7 ° C was recorded!

Humid subtropical climate characteristic of the eastern coasts of the continents to the north and south of the tropics. The main areas of distribution are the southeastern United States, some southeastern regions of Europe, northern India and Myanmar, eastern China and southern Japan, northeastern Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil, the coast of Natal province in South Africa and the east coast of Australia. Summers in the humid subtropics are long and hot, with the same temperatures as in the tropics. The average temperature of the warmest month exceeds +27 ° С, and the maximum temperature is +38 ° С. Winters are mild, with average monthly temperatures above 0 ° C, but occasional frosts have a detrimental effect on vegetable and citrus plantations. In humid subtropics, the average annual precipitation ranges from 750 to 2000 mm, the distribution of precipitation over the seasons is quite even. In winter, rains and occasional snowfalls are brought mainly by cyclones. In summer, precipitation falls mainly in the form of thunderstorms associated with powerful inflows of warm and humid oceanic air, characteristic of the monsoon circulation of East Asia. Hurricanes (or typhoons) occur in late summer and fall, especially in the Northern Hemisphere.

Subtropical climate with dry summers typical of the western coasts of the continents north and south of the tropics. In southern Europe and North Africa such climatic conditions are typical for the coast Mediterranean Sea, which was the reason to call this climate also Mediterranean... A similar climate in southern California, central Chile, in the extreme south of Africa and in several areas in southern Australia. All these areas have hot summers and mild winters. As in the humid subtropics, there are occasional frosts in winter. In hinterland in summer, temperatures are much higher than on the coasts and are often the same as in tropical deserts. In general, clear weather prevails. Fogs are common on the coasts near which ocean currents pass in summer. For example, in San Francisco, summers are cool, foggy, and the warmest month is September. The maximum precipitation is associated with the passage of cyclones in winter, when the prevailing air currents mix towards the equator. The influence of anticyclones and downdrafts over the oceans are responsible for the dryness of the summer season. The average annual precipitation in a subtropical climate ranges from 380 to 900 mm and reaches its maximum values ​​on the coasts and slopes of the mountains. In summer, there is usually not enough rainfall for the normal growth of trees, and therefore a specific type of evergreen shrub vegetation develops there, known as maquis, chaparral, mali, macchia and finbosh.

Equatorial climate zone

Equatorial type of climate distributed in equatorial latitudes in the Amazon basins in South America and the Congo in Africa, the Malacca Peninsula and the islands of Southeast Asia. Typically, the average annual temperature is about +26 ° С. Due to the high noon standing of the Sun above the horizon and the same day length throughout the year, seasonal temperature fluctuations are small. Humid air, cloudiness and dense vegetation prevent nighttime cooling and maintain maximum daytime temperatures below +37 ° C, lower than in higher latitudes. Average annual rainfall in the humid tropics ranges from 1,500 to 3,000 mm and is usually evenly distributed over the seasons. Precipitation is mainly associated with the intertropical convergence zone, which is located slightly north of the equator. Seasonal displacements of this zone to the north and south in some areas lead to the formation of two maximum precipitation during the year, separated by drier periods. Thousands of thunderstorms roll over the humid tropics every day. In between, the sun shines in full force.

Climate (from the Greek klíma, genitive klímatos, literally - tilt; implies the inclination of the earth's surface to the sun's rays)

long-term weather regime characteristic of a particular locality on Earth and which is one of its geographic characteristics. In this case, the long-term regime is understood as the totality of all weather conditions in a given area over a period of several tens of years; typical annual change in these conditions and possible deviations from it in individual years; combinations of weather conditions characteristic of its various anomalies (droughts, rainy periods, cold snaps, etc.). Around the middle of the 20th century. the concept of K., which previously referred only to conditions near the earth's surface, was also extended to the high layers of the atmosphere.

Conditions of formation and evolution of climate. The main characteristics of K. To identify the features of the climate, both typical and rarely observed, long-term series of meteorological observations are required. In temperate latitudes, 25-50-year rows are used; in the tropics, their duration may be shorter; sometimes (for example, for Antarctica, high layers of the atmosphere) it is necessary to limit ourselves to shorter observations, taking into account that subsequent experience can refine preliminary ideas.

In the study of oceanic oceans, in addition to observations on the islands, information obtained in different time on ships in this or that part of the water area, and regular observations on the ships of the weather.

Climatic characteristics represent statistical conclusions from long-term observation series, primarily over the following main meteorological elements: atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, air temperature and humidity, cloudiness and precipitation. They also take into account the duration of solar radiation, the visibility range, the temperature of the upper layers of the soil and water bodies, the evaporation of water from the earth's surface into the atmosphere, the height and state of the snow cover, and various atm. phenomena and terrestrial hydrometeors (dew, ice, fog, thunderstorms, blizzards, etc.). In the 20th century. The climatic indicators included the characteristics of the elements of the heat balance of the earth's surface, such as total solar radiation, radiation balance, values ​​of heat exchange between the earth's surface and the atmosphere, heat consumption for evaporation.

The characteristics of a free atmosphere (see Aeroclimatology) relate primarily to atmospheric pressure, wind, temperature, and air humidity; they are joined by data on radiation.

Long-term average values ​​of meteorological elements (annual, seasonal, monthly, daily, etc.), their sum, frequency and others are called climatic norms; the corresponding values ​​for individual days, months, years, etc. are considered as deviations from these norms. To characterize K., complex indicators are also used, that is, functions of several elements: various coefficients, factors, indices (for example, continentality, aridity, moisture), etc.

Special indicators of K. are used in applied branches of climatology (for example, the sums of the temperatures of the growing season in agroclimatology, effective temperatures in bioclimatology and technical climatology, degree days in calculating heating systems, etc.).

In the 20th century. ideas arose about the microclimate, the surface layer of the air, the local climate, and others, as well as about the macroclimate - the surface layer of territories on a planetary scale. There are also concepts “K. soil "and" K. plants ”(phytoclimate), characterizing the habitat of plants. The term "urban climate" has also gained wide popularity, since a modern large city significantly influences its climate.

The main processes that form the climate. Climatic conditions on Earth are created as a result of the following main interrelated cycles of geophysical processes on a global scale: heat turnover, moisture turnover, and general atmospheric circulation.

Moisture turnover consists in the evaporation of water into the atmosphere from water bodies and land, including the transpiration of plants; in the transfer of water vapor to high layers of the atmosphere (see Convection) , as well as air currents of the general circulation of the atmosphere; in condensation of water vapor in the form of clouds and fogs; in the transfer of clouds by air currents and in precipitation from them; in the runoff of the precipitation and in their new evaporation, etc. (see Moisture turnover).

The general circulation of the atmosphere creates mainly the wind regime. The global transfer of heat and moisture is associated with the transfer of air masses by general circulation.Local atmospheric circulations (breezes, mountain-valley winds, etc.) create air transfer only over limited areas of the earth's surface, superimposing on the general circulation and affecting the climatic conditions in these areas ( see Atmospheric circulation).

The influence of geographic factors on K. Climate-forming processes occur under the influence of a number of geographical factors, the main of which are: 1) Geographic latitude, which determines the zonality and seasonality in the distribution of solar radiation coming to the Earth, and with it the air temperature, atmospheric pressure, etc .; latitude affects wind conditions directly, since the deflecting force of the Earth's rotation depends on it. 2) Altitude above sea level. The climatic conditions in the free atmosphere and in the mountains vary with altitude. Relatively small differences in height, measured in hundreds and thousands m, are equivalent in their influence on Canada to latitudinal distances of thousands of km. In this regard, high-altitude climatic zones are traced in the mountains (see Altitudinal zonality). 3) Distribution of land and sea. Due to the different conditions for the propagation of heat in the upper layers of the soil and water and due to their different absorptive capacity, differences are created between the heat of continents and oceans. The general circulation of the atmosphere then leads to the fact that the conditions of sea ocean travel with air currents into the interior of the continents, while the conditions of continental ocean cover spread to neighboring parts of the oceans. 4) Orography. Mountain ranges and massifs with different slopes exposure create large disturbances in the distribution of air currents, air temperature, cloudiness, precipitation, etc. 5) Ocean currents. Warm currents, falling into high latitudes, give off heat to the atmosphere; cold currents moving towards low latitudes cool the atmosphere. Currents affect both moisture circulation, promoting or preventing the formation of clouds and fogs, and atmospheric circulation, since the latter depends on temperature conditions. 6) The nature of the soil, especially its reflectivity (albedo) and moisture. 7) Vegetation cover to a certain extent affects the absorption and release of radiation, moisture and wind, 8) Snow and ice cover. Seasonal snow cover over land, sea ice, permanent ice and snow cover of such territories as Greenland and Antarctica, firn fields and glaciers in the mountains significantly affect the temperature regime, wind conditions, cloudiness, moisture. 9) Air composition. Naturally, for short periods, it does not change significantly, except for the sporadic influences of volcanic eruptions or forest fires. However, in industrial areas there is an increase in the content of carbon dioxide from fuel combustion and air pollution with gas and aerosol wastes from production and transport.

Climate and people. The types of K. and their distribution over the globe have the most significant effect on the water regime, soil, vegetation cover, and animal world, as well as on the distribution and yield of agricultural products. cultures. To a certain extent, K. influences the settlement, location of industry, living conditions and health of the population. Therefore, the correct consideration of the characteristics and influences of K. is necessary not only in agriculture, but also in the placement, planning, construction and operation of hydropower and industrial facilities, in urban planning, in the transport network, as well as in health care (resort network, climatotherapy, fighting epidemics , social hygiene), tourism, sports. The study of climatic conditions, both in general and from the point of view of the specific needs of the national economy, the generalization and dissemination of data on K. for the purpose of their practical use in the USSR are carried out by the institutions of the USSR Hydrometeorological Service.

Humanity is still unable to significantly influence climate by direct change in the physical mechanisms of climate-forming processes. The active physicochemical impact of man on the processes of cloud formation and precipitation is already a reality, but it has no climatic significance due to its spatial limitation. Industrial activity human society leads to an increase in the content of carbon dioxide, industrial gases and aerosol impurities in the air. This affects not only the living conditions and health of people, but also the absorption of radiation in the atmosphere and thus the air temperature. The flow of heat into the atmosphere is also constantly increasing due to the combustion of fuel. These anthropogenic changes to. Are especially noticeable in big cities; globally, they are still insignificant. But in the near future, we can expect their significant increase. In addition, by influencing one or another of the geographic factors of K., that is, by changing the environment in which climate-forming processes take place, people, without knowing it or not taking into account, have for a long time worsened K. by irrational deforestation, predatory plowing of land. ... On the contrary, the implementation of rational irrigation measures and the creation of oases in the desert improved the water supply in the corresponding regions. The task of deliberate, directed improvement of K. is posed mainly in relation to the microclimate and local K. A real and safe way of such improvement is the purposeful expansion of the impact on the soil and vegetation cover (planting forest belts, drainage and irrigation of the territory).

Climate change. Studies of sedimentary deposits, fossil remains of flora and fauna, radioactivity of rocks, etc. different eras changed significantly. During the last hundreds of millions of years (before anthropogen), the Earth, apparently, was warmer than it is now: the temperature in the tropics was close to modern, and in temperate and high latitudes much higher than today. At the beginning of the Paleogene (about 70 million years ago), the temperature contrasts between the equatorial and circumpolar regions began to increase, but before the beginning of the Anthropogen they were less than the existing ones. In the anthropogen, the temperature at high latitudes dropped sharply and polar glaciations appeared. The last reduction of glaciers in the Northern Hemisphere ended, apparently, about 10 thousand years ago, after which the permanent ice cover remained mainly in the Arctic Ocean, Greenland and other Arctic islands, and in the Southern Hemisphere - in Antarctica.

To characterize C. for the last few thousand years, there is extensive material obtained using paleographic research methods (dendrochronology, palynological analysis, etc.), based on the study of archaeological data, folklore and literary monuments, and at a later time - and chronicle evidence. It can be concluded that over the past 5 thousand years, the capital of Europe and the regions close to it (and probably the entire globe) has fluctuated within relatively narrow limits. Dry and warm periods were replaced by wetter and cooler ones several times. About 500 BC. NS. precipitation increased markedly and K. became cooler. At the beginning of n. NS. it was similar to the modern one. In the 12-13th centuries. K. was softer and drier than at the beginning of AD. e., but in the 15-16 centuries. again there was a significant cooling and the sea ice cover increased. Over the past 3 centuries, an ever-increasing material of instrumental meteorological observations has been accumulated, which has gained global distribution. From the 17th to the middle of the 19th centuries. K. remained cold and wet, glaciers were advancing. From the 2nd half of the 19th century. a new warming began, especially strong in the Arctic, but covering almost the entire globe. This so-called modern warming continued until the mid-20th century. Against the background of fluctuations in K., spanning hundreds of years, short-term fluctuations with smaller amplitudes occurred. Changes To. Have, thus, a rhythmic, oscillatory character.

The pre-anthropogenic climate regime - warm, with low temperature contrasts and the absence of polar glaciations - was stable. On the other hand, anthropogenic ice and modern ice with glaciations, their pulsations, and sharp fluctuations in atmospheric conditions are unstable. According to the conclusions of M.I.Budyko, a very slight increase in the average temperatures of the earth's surface and atmosphere can lead to a decrease in polar glaciations, and the resulting change in the reflectivity (albedo) of the Earth - to further warming of their reduction of ice until they completely disappear.

Climates of the Earth. Climatic conditions on Earth are closely related to geographic latitude. In this regard, even in antiquity, the idea of ​​climatic (thermal) zones was formed, the boundaries of which coincide with the tropics and polar circles. In the tropical zone (between the northern and southern tropics), the Sun is at its zenith twice a year; the length of the daytime at the equator throughout the year is 12 h, and inside the tropics it ranges from 11 to 13 h... In the temperate zones (between the tropics and the polar circles), the sun rises and sets every day, but never at its zenith. Its midday elevation in summer is significantly greater than in winter, as is the length of the daytime, and these seasonal differences increase with approaching the poles. Beyond the polar circles, the Sun does not set in summer, and does not rise in winter for the longer, the greater the latitude of the place. At the poles, the year is divided into six-month day and night.

The peculiarities of the visible movement of the Sun determine the inflow of solar radiation to the upper boundary of the atmosphere at different latitudes and at different times and seasons (the so-called solar climate). In the tropical zone, the inflow of solar radiation to the boundary of the atmosphere has an annual variation with a small amplitude and two maxima during the year. In the temperate zones, the inflow of solar radiation to the horizontal surface at the border of the atmosphere in summer differs relatively little from the inflow in the tropics: a lower sun height is compensated by an increased day length. But in winter, the influx of radiation decreases rapidly with latitude. In polar latitudes, with a long continuous day, the summer inflow of radiation is also great; on the day of the summer solstice, the pole receives even more radiation on the horizontal surface at the border of the atmosphere than the equator. But in the winter half of the year, the influx of radiation at the pole is absent altogether. Thus, the influx of solar radiation to the boundary of the atmosphere depends only on the geographical latitude and on the season and has a strict zoning. Within the atmosphere, solar radiation experiences non-zonal influences due to different contents of water vapor and dust, different cloudiness and other features of the gaseous and colloidal state of the atmosphere. A reflection of these influences is the complex distribution of the amounts of radiation entering the Earth's surface. Numerous geographical factors of climate (distribution of land and sea, peculiarities of orography, sea currents, etc.) also have a non-zonal character. Therefore, in the complex distribution of climatic characteristics at the earth's surface, zoning is only a background, showing more or less clearly through non-zonal influences.

The climatic zoning of the Earth is based on the division of territories into belts, zones and regions with more or less homogeneous climate conditions. The boundaries of climatic zones and zones not only do not coincide with latitudinal circles, but also do not always bend around the globe (in such cases, the zones are torn into areas that do not adjoin each other). Zoning can be carried out either on the basis of climatic characteristics (for example, according to the distribution of average air temperatures and amounts of atmospheric precipitation near W. Köppen), or according to other complexes of climatic characteristics, as well as on the peculiarities of the general circulation of the atmosphere, with which the types of climate are associated (for example, classification B.P. Alisova), or by the nature of the geographical landscapes determined by the climate (classification of L. S. Berg). The characteristics of the Earth's climates given below basically correspond to the regionalization of B.P. Alisov (1952).

The profound influence of the distribution of land and sea on climate can be seen already from a comparison of the conditions of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. The main land masses are concentrated in the Northern Hemisphere and therefore its climatic conditions are more continental than in the Southern Hemisphere. Average surface air temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere in January 8 ° С, in July 22 ° С; in the South, 17 ° C and 10 ° C, respectively. For the entire globe, the average temperature is 14 ° C (12 ° C in January, 16 ° C in July). The warmest parallel of the Earth - the thermal equator with a temperature of 27 ° C - coincides with the geographic equator only in January. In July, it shifts to 20 ° north latitude, and its average annual position is about 10 ° north latitude. From the thermal equator to the poles, the temperature drops on average by 0.5-0.6 ° С for each degree of latitude (very slowly in the tropics, faster in extratropical latitudes). At the same time, the air temperature inside the continents is higher in summer and lower in winter than over the oceans, especially in temperate latitudes. This does not apply to the climate over the ice plateaus of Greenland and Antarctica, where the air is much colder all year round than over the adjacent oceans (average annual air temperatures drop to -35 ° C, -45 ° C).

Average annual precipitation is greatest in near-equatorial latitudes (1500-1800 mm), to the subtropics, they decrease to 800 mm, in temperate latitudes again increase to 900-1200 mm and sharply decrease in the polar regions (up to 100 mm and less).

The equatorial climate encompasses a zone of low atmospheric pressure (the so-called equatorial depression), extending 5-10 ° north and south of the equator. It is characterized by a very uniform temperature regime with high air temperatures throughout the year (usually fluctuate between 24 ° C and 28 ° C, and the temperature amplitudes on land do not exceed 5 ° C, and at sea can be less than 1 ° C). Air humidity is constantly high, the annual amount of precipitation ranges from 1 to 3 thousand. mm per year, but in some places it reaches 6-10 thousand. mm. Precipitation usually falls in the form of rainstorms, they, especially in the intertropical convergence zone, separating the trade winds of the two hemispheres, as a rule, are evenly distributed throughout the year. The cloudiness is significant. The predominant natural land landscapes are humid equatorial forests.

On both sides of the equatorial depression, in areas of high atmospheric pressure, in the tropics over the oceans, a trade wind prevails with a stable regime of east winds (trade winds), moderate cloudiness and fairly dry weather. Average temperatures in summer months are 20-27 ° С, in winter months the temperature drops to 10-15 ° С. Annual precipitation is about 500 mm, their number increases sharply on the slopes of mountainous islands facing the trade winds, and with relatively rare passages of tropical cyclones.

The areas of the oceanic trade winds correspond on land to territories with a tropical desert climate, characterized by exceptionally hot summers (the average temperature of the warmest month in the Northern Hemisphere is about 40 ° C, in Australia up to 34 ° C). The absolute maximum temperature in North Africa and the interior regions of California is 57-58 ° С, in Australia - up to 55 ° С (the highest air temperatures on Earth). Average temperatures of winter months from 10 to 15 ° C. The daily temperature amplitudes are large (in some places over 40 ° C). Little precipitation (usually less than 250 mm, often less than 100 mm in year).

In some areas of the tropics ( Equatorial Africa, South and Southeast Asia, Northern Australia) the trade wind climate is replaced by the tropical monsoon climate. The intertropical convergence zone shifts here in summer far from the equator, and instead of an eastern trade wind transfer between it and the equator, a western air transfer (summer monsoon) occurs, with which most of the precipitation is associated. On average, they fall almost as much as in the equatorial climate (in Calcutta, for example, 1630 mm per year, of which 1180 mm falls in 4 months of the summer monsoon). On the slopes of the mountains facing the summer monsoon, record precipitation falls for the corresponding regions, and in the North-East of India (Cherrapundzhi) the maximum amount on the globe (on average about 12 thousand. mm in year). Summers are hot (average air temperatures are above 30 ° C), and the warmest month usually precedes the onset of the summer monsoon. The tropical monsoon zone, East Africa and Southwest Asia also have the highest average annual temperatures on the globe (30-32 ° C). Winters are cool in some areas. The average January temperature in Madras is 25 ° C, in Varanasi 16 ° C, and in Shanghai - only 3 ° C.

In the western parts of the continents in subtropical latitudes (25-40 ° north latitude and south latitude), the climate is characterized by high atmospheric pressure in summer (subtropical anticyclones) and cyclonic activity in winter, when anticyclones move somewhat towards the equator. Under these conditions, a Mediterranean climate is formed, which is observed, in addition to the Mediterranean, on the southern coast of Crimea, as well as in western California, southern Africa, and southwestern Australia. With hot, little cloudy and dry summers, there are cool and rainy winters. Rainfall is usually low and some areas with this climate are semi-arid. Temperatures in summer 20-25 ° С, in winter 5-10 ° С, annual precipitation is usually 400-600 mm.

Inside the continents in subtropical latitudes in winter and summer, high atmospheric pressure prevails. Therefore, a climate of dry subtropics is formed here, hot and cloudy in summer, cool in winter. Summer temperatures, for example, in Turkmenistan reach 50 ° C on some days, and in winter frosts down to -10, -20 ° C are possible. The annual amount of precipitation is in some places only 120 mm.

On the high highlands of Asia (Pamir, Tibet), a climate of cold deserts is formed with cool summers, very cold winters and scarce rainfall. In Murghab in the Pamirs, for example, in July 14 ° С, in January -18 ° С, precipitation is about 80 mm in year.

In the eastern parts of the continents, in subtropical latitudes, a monsoon subtropical climate is formed (Eastern China, the Southeast of the United States, the countries of the Parana River basin in South America). Temperature conditions here are close to areas with a Mediterranean climate, but precipitation is more abundant and falls mainly in summer, during the oceanic monsoon (for example, in Beijing from 640 mm annual precipitation 260 mm falls in July and only 2 mm December).

The temperate latitudes are characterized by intense cyclonic activity, leading to frequent and strong changes in air pressure and temperature. Westerly winds prevail (especially over the oceans and in the Southern Hemisphere). Transitional seasons (autumn, spring) are long and well expressed.

In the western parts of the continents (mainly Eurasia and North America), a maritime climate prevails with cool summers, warm (for these latitudes) winters, moderate precipitation (for example, in Paris in July 18 ° С, in January 2 ° С, precipitation 490 mm per year) without stable snow cover. Precipitation increases sharply on the windward slopes of the mountains. So, in Bergen (at the western foothills of the Scandinavian mountains) precipitation is over 2500 mm per year, and in Stockholm (east of the Scandinavian mountains) - only 540 mm. The influence of orography on precipitation is even more pronounced in North America with its meridionally elongated ridges. On the western slopes of the Cascade Mountains, drops out in places from 3 to 6 thousand. mm, while beyond the ridges, the amount of precipitation decreases to 500 mm and below.

The inland climate of temperate latitudes in Eurasia and North America is characterized by a more or less stable regime of high air pressure, especially in winter, warm summers and cold winters with a stable snow cover. The annual temperature amplitudes are large and grow inland (mainly due to the increasing severity of winters). For example, in Moscow in July 17 ° С, in January -10 ° С, precipitation is about 600 mm in year; in Novosibirsk in July 19 ° С, in January -19 ° С, precipitation 410 mm per year (maximum precipitation is everywhere in summer). In the southern part of the temperate latitudes of the inner regions of Eurasia, the aridity of the climate increases, steppe, semi-desert and desert landscapes are formed, and the snow cover is unstable. The most continental climate is in the northeastern regions of Eurasia. In Yakutia, the Verkhoyansk-Oymyakon region is one of the winter cold poles of the Northern Hemisphere. The average January temperature drops here to -50 ° C, and the absolute minimum is about -70 ° C. In the mountains and on high plateaus of the inner parts of the continents of the Northern Hemisphere, winters are very harsh and little snow, anticyclonic weather prevails, summers are hot, precipitation is relatively small and falls mainly in summer (for example, in Ulan Bator in July 17 ° С, in January -24 ° С , precipitation 240 mm in year). In the Southern Hemisphere, due to the limited area of ​​the continents at the corresponding latitudes, the inland climate did not develop.

The monsoon climate of temperate latitudes is formed on the eastern outskirts of Eurasia. It is characterized by low-cloud and cold winters with prevailing north-westerly winds, warm or moderately warm summers with southeasterly and southerly winds and sufficient or even abundant summer precipitation (for example, in Khabarovsk in July 23 ° С, in January -20 ° С, precipitation 560 mm per year, of which only 74 mm falls in the cold half of the year). In Japan and Kamchatka, winters are much milder, there is a lot of precipitation in both winter and summer; high snow cover forms on Kamchatka, Sakhalin and Hokkaido Island.

The climate of the Subarctic is formed on the northern outskirts of Eurasia and North America. Winters are long and harsh, the average temperature of the warmest month is no higher than 12 ° С, precipitation is less than 300 mm, and in the North-East of Siberia even less than 100 mm in year. In cold summers and permafrost, even small precipitation creates excessive moisture and waterlogging in many areas. In the Southern Hemisphere, a similar climate is developed only on the subantarctic islands and on Graham Land.

Intense cyclonic activity with windy cloudy weather and heavy rainfall prevails over the oceans of temperate and subpolar latitudes in both hemispheres.

The climate of the Arctic Basin is harsh, average monthly temperatures vary from O ° C in summer to -40 ° C in winter, on the Greenland plateau from -15 to -50 ° C, and the absolute minimum is close to -70 ° C. The average annual air temperature is below -30 ° С, little precipitation (in most of Greenland less than 100 mm in year). The Atlantic regions of the European Arctic are characterized by a relatively mild and humid climate, because warm air masses from the Atlantic Ocean often penetrate here (on Svalbard in January -16 ° С, in July 5 ° С, precipitation is about 320 mm in year); even at the North Pole, at times, sharp warming is possible. In the Asian-American sector of the Arctic, the climate is more severe.

The climate of Antarctica is the most severe on Earth. Strong winds blow on the coasts, associated with the continuous passage of cyclones over the surrounding ocean and with the outflow of cold air from the central regions of the mainland along the slopes of the ice sheet. The average temperature in Mirny is -2 ° С in January and December, -18 ° С in August and September. Precipitation from 300 to 700 mm in year. Inside East Antarctica, on a high ice plateau, high atmospheric pressure almost constantly dominates, the winds are weak, and the cloud cover is low. The average temperature in summer is about -30 ° C, in winter about -70 ° C. The absolute minimum at Vostok station is close to -90 ° С (the cold pole of the entire globe). Precipitation less than 100 mm in year. In West Antarctica and at the South Pole, the climate is somewhat milder.

Lit .: Course of climatology, parts 1-3, L., 1952-54; Atlas of the Earth's Heat Balance, ed. M.I.Budyko, M., 1963; Berg LS, Fundamentals of climatology, 2nd ed., L., 1938; his, Climate and Life, 2nd ed., M., 1947; Brooks, K., Climates of the Past, trans. from English., M., 1952; Budyko MI, Climate and life, L., 1971; Voeikov A.I., Climates of the Globe, Especially Russia, Izbr. cit., t. 1, M. - L., 1948; Geiger P., Climate of the surface layer of air, trans. from English., M., 1960; Guterman I. G., Distribution of wind over the northern hemisphere, L., 1965; Drozdov OA, Fundamentals of climatological processing of meteorological observations, L., 1956; Drozdov OA, Grigorieva A.S., Moisture rotation in the atmosphere, L, 1963; Keppen V., Fundamentals of climatology, trans. from it., M., 1938; Climate of the USSR, c. 1-8, L., 1958-63; Methods of climatological processing, L., 1956; Microclimate of the USSR, L., 1967; Sapozhnikova SA, Microclimate and local climate, L., 1950; Reference book on the climate of the USSR, v. 1-34, L., 1964-70; Blüthgen J., Allgemeine Klimageographie, 2 Aufl., B., 1966; Handbuch der Klimatologie. Hrsg. von W. Köppen und R. Geiger, Bd 1-5, B., 1930-36; Hann J., Handbuch der Klimatologie, 3 Aufl., Bd 1-3, Stuttg., 1908-11; World survey of climatology, ed. H.E. Landsberg, v. 1-15, Amst. - L. - N. Y., 1969.

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Subtitles

if you remove all the lies from the story, this does not mean that only the truth will remain, as a result, nothing may remain at all Stanislav Yezhylets our recent video 10 filled cities got a million views and, as promised, we will soon make a continuation if you watched our previous video put your thumbs up if not look at the link at the top today we will talk about the climate about which historians, as usual, do not agree on something for us, well, they have such an operation on written sources until the 18th century, it is necessary with great care, since nothing is easier than forging paper much more difficult to forge, for example, buildings here and we will not rely on the evidence of which it is almost impossible to falsify and these facts should not be considered separately, but in aggregate about the climate of the 18th century and earlier, much can be said about those buildings and structures that were built at that time, all the facts that we have accumulated indicate that that most of the palaces and mansions that were built before the nineteenth centuries were built under another more warm climate in addition, we found other evidence of a sharp climate change, be sure to watch the video to the end a very large area of ​​windows the partition between the windows is equal or even less than the width of the windows themselves and the windows themselves are very high, a stunning huge building, but as we are assured by this summer palace, it was built allegedly for this to come here exclusively in the summer, the version is funny considering that summer in St. look at the heating bills and questions will immediately disappear later, at the beginning of the 19th century, an annex was made to the palace where the famous lyceum is located in which Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin studied. That is, in many buildings, a heating system was not initially supposed and they were later built into the finished building for this there is a lot of evidence here, the researchers Artem Vaydenkov clearly shows that initially no stoves in the temples were envisaged, well, the designers apparently forgetful were the temples themselves designed almost all over the country not according to the standard design, but the stoves to provide for the forgotten chimneys are hollowed out in the walls and rather carelessly and then sealed also clearly in haste apparently it was not up to the beauty then the builders of the hollowed out chimneys could see soot and soot the stoves themselves, of course, had long been taken away, but in the fact that they were not here no doubt another example looks like a cavalier ska and a silver dining stove just put the wall decoration in a corner; the presence of a stove in this corner ignores, that is, it was done before it appeared there if you look at the upper part you can see that it does not fit snugly against the wall because it interferes figured gilded aryllo finish ver ha the walls and look at the size of the stove and the size of the rooms, the height of the ceilings in the Catherine's palace, you believe that such stoves could somehow heat up such a room, we are so used to listening to the opinion of the authorities that often seeing obviously we do not believe our eyes we trust various experts who are such We called ourselves and let's try to abstract ourselves from the explanations of various historians, local lore guides, that is, everything that is extremely easy to fake is distorted and just try to see someone's fantasies, but what is reality, take a close look at this photo this building of the Kazan Kremlin building, as usual, is covered with windows on there are no trees on the horizon, but now not about this, pay attention to the building in the lower right corner, apparently this building has not yet been reconstructed for new climatic conditions, the building on the left, as we see already with chimneys, and apparently just hands have not yet reached this building if you find similar pictures of cases read in the comments the task of thermal vestibules is to prevent cold air from entering the main room with vestibules the same story is that they were made of chimneys later than the buildings themselves, in these frames it is clearly seen that they do not fit into the architectural ensemble of buildings vestibules are made of a different material apparently strongly then it froze here, it's not up to the frills somewhere, the vestibules were made as gracefully as possible and fitted to the style of the building, but somewhere they didn't bother at all and made a tyap-blooper, these frames show that there is no vestibule in the old photographs of the temple, and now it is and the average person never will understand that something was once rebuilt here is another similar example, this is the same on the old photo of the vestibule, but now it is why all of a sudden these thermal vestibules were needed so badly for beauty, or maybe this fashion was then on the vestibule do not rush to draw conclusions first look other facts further more interesting is the lack of waterproofing for those who do not know what gi is drop insulation is the protection of the underground part of the house from moisture if waterproofing is not done, this foundation will quickly become unusable from temperature extremes, since water tends to expand when freezing; a brick that freezes, thaws, then heats up by the sun, then freezes again, this is what happens to the foundation if waterproofing is not done buildings will quickly collapse such a situation is observed everywhere the builders of the past were definitely not fools if they could build similar buildings, the structures that we told you about in one of our videos, look at the link above and in the description of the video, but why the designers did not provide for waterproofing, they did not know that water when it freezes, it expands and this majestic building will collapse in a few years, it is hard to believe in it, but you can forget to make waterproofing in several buildings, but not everywhere, the change in the angle of inclination of the roof on these frames shows that the roof used to be of a different shape, why did it take nice pictures or give another similar children's explanation, and if, in combination with all the previously cited facts, the presence of a field is quite easily explained by a mammoth in the 19th century on our channel there was a video of moments, be sure to look at the link in the description of the word mammoths tropical animals herbivores in winter they cannot survive because they there is simply nothing to eat in our video, we prove that mammoths lived in the 19th century and how could they live if there was a climate such as today in such a climate in winter they simply would not find food for themselves, but if we assume that the climate was different, then the existence of mammoths in The 19th century does not seem to be such a seditious statement and is very similar to all the previously listed facts, well, just for a second, admit the thought: what if historians really lied and you are mistaken, based on their assertion, and we are independent researchers whom no one finances really tell you the truth a year without summer the network is a mass of information about the so-called year without summer year without summer, the nickname of 1816 in which unusually cold weather reigned in western Europe and North America, then today it remains the coldest year at first documenting meteorological observations in the usa I also nicknamed it handle and frozen rating there which translates as 1800 frozen to death this is another puzzle in mosaic and global cooling, there is also information that pineapple and other tropical fruits were grown in central Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries, but on this we did not find documentary evidence if anyone has a commentary on the video, so we are like investigators bit by bit we collect information and draw up a general picture of events and it turns out it is a little shocking and indicates a catastrophic event that happened in the recent past about which we have already talked about in one of our videos the link is at the top as always if you want to continue this series, be sure to put your finger up write comments and share it role com with friends in social networks and of course, do not forget to subscribe to us and send notifications so as not to miss new seditious videos and we have everything for today, see you soon

Study methods

To draw conclusions about the peculiarities of the climate, long-term series of observations of the weather are required. In temperate latitudes, they use 25-50-year trends, in tropical latitudes, shorter ones. Climatic characteristics are derived from observations of meteorological elements, the most important of which are atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, air temperature and humidity, cloudiness and precipitation. In addition, they study the duration of solar radiation, the duration of the frost-free period, the visibility range, the temperature of the upper layers of the soil and water in reservoirs, the evaporation of water from the earth's surface, the height and condition of the snow cover, all kinds of atmospheric phenomena, total solar radiation, radiation balance and much more.

The applied branches of climatology use the climate characteristics necessary for their purposes:

• in agroclimatology - the sum of the temperatures of the growing season;
• in bioclimatology and technical climatology - effective temperatures;

Complex indicators are also used, determined by several main meteorological elements, namely, all kinds of coefficients (continentality, aridity, moisture), factors, indices.

Long-term mean values ​​of meteorological elements and their integrated indicators(annual, seasonal, monthly, daily, etc.), their amounts, return periods are considered climatic norms. Non-coincidences with them in specific periods are considered deviations from these norms.

Models of general atmospheric circulation are used to assess future climate changes [ ] .

Climate-forming factors

The planet's climate depends on a whole complex of astronomical and geographical factors that affect the total amount of solar radiation received by the planet, as well as its distribution over seasons, hemispheres and continents. With the onset of the industrial revolution, human activity becomes a climate-forming factor.

Astronomical factors

Astronomical factors include the luminosity of the Sun, the position and motion of the planet Earth relative to the Sun, the angle of inclination of the Earth's axis of rotation to the plane of its orbit, the speed of rotation of the Earth, and the density of matter in the surrounding space. The rotation of the globe around its axis causes daily changes in the weather, the movement of the earth around the sun and the inclination of the axis of rotation to the orbital plane cause seasonal and latitudinal differences in weather conditions. The eccentricity of the Earth's orbit - affects the distribution of heat between the Northern and Southern hemispheres, as well as the magnitude of seasonal changes. The speed of rotation of the Earth practically does not change, it is a constantly acting factor. Due to the rotation of the Earth, trade winds and monsoons exist, as well as cyclones. [ ]

Geographic factors

Geographic factors include

Influence of solar radiation

The most important element of the climate, affecting the rest of its characteristics, primarily the temperature, is the radiant energy of the Sun. The enormous energy released in the process of nuclear fusion on the Sun is radiated into outer space. The power of solar radiation received by a planet depends on its size and distance from the Sun. The total flux of solar radiation passing per unit of time through a unit area oriented perpendicular to the flux, at a distance of one astronomical unit from the Sun outside the earth's atmosphere, is called the solar constant. In the upper part of the earth's atmosphere, each square meter perpendicular to the sun's rays receives 1,365 W ± 3.4% of solar energy. Energy varies throughout the year due to the ellipticity of the Earth's orbit, with the greatest power absorbed by the Earth in January. Despite the fact that about 31% of the received radiation is reflected back into space, the remainder is enough to support atmospheric and ocean currents, and to provide energy for almost all biological processes on Earth.

The energy received by the earth's surface depends on the angle of incidence of the sun's rays, it is greatest if this angle is right, but most of the earth's surface is not perpendicular to the sun's rays. The inclination of the rays depends on the latitude of the area, time of year and day, it is greatest at noon on June 22 north of the Tropic of Cancer and on December 22 south of the Tropic of Capricorn, in the tropics the maximum (90 °) is reached 2 times a year.

Another important factor determining the latitudinal climatic regime is the length of daylight hours. Beyond the polar circles, that is, north of 66.5 ° N. NS. and south of 66.5 ° S. NS. the length of daylight hours varies from zero (in winter) to 24 hours in summer; at the equator, it is 12-hour day all year round. Since seasonal changes in inclination angle and day length are more noticeable at higher latitudes, the amplitude of temperature fluctuations during the year decreases from the poles to low latitudes.

The receipt and distribution of solar radiation over the surface of the globe without taking into account the climate-forming factors of a particular area is called the solar climate.

The share of solar energy absorbed by the earth's surface varies markedly depending on cloud cover, surface type and terrain elevation, averaging 46% of that supplied to the upper atmosphere. Constant cloudiness, such as at the equator, reflects most of the incoming energy. The water surface absorbs the sun's rays (except for very inclined ones) better than other surfaces, reflecting only 4-10%. The share of absorbed energy is higher than average in deserts located high above sea level, due to the thinner atmosphere that scatters the sun's rays.

Circulation of the atmosphere

In the most heated places, the heated air has a lower density and rises upward, thus forming a zone of low atmospheric pressure. Similarly, a zone of increased pressure is formed in colder places. Air movement occurs from a zone of high atmospheric pressure to a zone of low atmospheric pressure. Since the closer to the equator and further from the poles the terrain is located, the better it warms up, in the lower layers of the atmosphere there is a predominant movement of air from the poles to the equator.

However, the Earth also rotates on its axis, so the Coriolis force acts on the moving air and deflects this movement to the west. In the upper layers of the troposphere, the reverse movement of air masses is formed: from the equator to the poles. Its Coriolis force constantly bends to the east, and the farther, the more. And in areas about 30 degrees north and south latitude, movement becomes directed from west to east parallel to the equator. As a result, the air trapped in these latitudes has nowhere to go at such an altitude, and it sinks down to the ground. The area of ​​the highest pressure is formed here. Thus, trade winds are formed - constant winds blowing towards the equator and to the west, and since the turning force acts constantly, when approaching the equator, the trade winds blow almost parallel to it. The air currents of the upper layers, directed from the equator to the tropics, are called anti-trade winds. Trade winds and anti-trade winds seem to form an air wheel, along which a continuous circulation of air is maintained between the equator and the tropics. There is an intertropical convergence zone between the trade winds of the Northern and Southern hemispheres.

During the year, this zone shifts from the equator to the warmer summer hemisphere. As a result, in some places, especially in the Indian Ocean basin, where the main direction of air transport in winter is from west to east, in summer it is replaced by the opposite one. These air transfers are called tropical monsoons. Cyclonic activity connects the zone of tropical circulation with circulation in temperate latitudes, and between them there is an exchange of warm and cold air. As a result of interlatitudinal air exchange, heat is transferred from low latitudes to high latitudes and cold from high latitudes to low latitudes, which leads to the maintenance of thermal equilibrium on Earth.

In fact, the circulation of the atmosphere is constantly changing, both due to seasonal changes in the distribution of heat on the earth's surface and in the atmosphere, and due to the formation and movement of cyclones and anticyclones in the atmosphere. Cyclones and anticyclones move generally towards the east, with cyclones deviating towards the poles, and anticyclones away from the poles.

Climate types

The classification of the Earth's climates can be made either directly by climatic characteristics (classification by V. Köppen), or based on the features of the general circulation of the atmosphere (classification by BP Alisov), or by the nature of geographic landscapes (classification by L. S. Berg). The climatic conditions of the area are primarily determined by the so-called. solar climate - the influx of solar radiation to the upper boundary of the atmosphere, depending on latitude and different at different times and seasons. Nevertheless, the boundaries of climatic zones not only do not coincide with the parallels, but do not even always go around the globe, while there are zones isolated from each other with the same type of climate. The proximity of the sea, the atmospheric circulation system and the height above sea level also have an important influence.

The classification of climates proposed by the Russian scientist W. Köppen (1846-1940) is widespread in the world. It is based on the temperature regime and the degree of moisture. The classification has been improved several times, and in the edition of G. T. Trevart (English) Russian there are six classes with sixteen types of climate. Many types of climates according to the Köppen climate classification are known by names associated with the characteristic vegetation of this type. Each type has precise parameters of temperature values, the amount of winter and summer precipitation, this makes it easier to assign a certain place to a certain type of climate, therefore the Köppen classification has become widespread.

On both sides of the low-pressure belt along the equator, there are zones with increased atmospheric pressure. The oceans are dominated here trade wind with constant east winds, the so-called. trade winds. The weather here is relatively dry (about 500 mm of precipitation per year), with moderate cloud cover, in summer the average temperature is 20-27 ° С, in winter - 10-15 ° С. Precipitation increases sharply on the windward slopes of mountainous islands. Tropical cyclones are relatively rare.

These oceanic areas correspond to tropical desert zones on land with dry tropical climate... The average temperature of the warmest month in the Northern Hemisphere is about 40 ° C, in Australia up to 34 ° C. In northern Africa and in the interior of California, the highest temperatures on Earth are observed - 57-58 ° С, in Australia - up to 55 ° С. In winter, temperatures drop to 10-15 ° C. Temperature changes during the day are very large, can exceed 40 ° C. Little precipitation falls - less than 250 mm, often no more than 100 mm per year.

In many tropical regions - Equatorial Africa, South and Southeast Asia, northern Australia - the dominance of the trade winds is replaced subequatorial, or tropical monsoon climate... Here, in the summer, the intertropical convergence zone moves further north of the equator. As a result, the eastern trade wind transport of air masses is replaced by the western monsoon, which is associated with the bulk of the precipitation falling here. The predominant types of vegetation are monsoon forests, forest savannas and tall grass savannas

In the subtropics

In the belts of 25-40 ° north latitude and south latitude, subtropical types of climate prevail, forming in the conditions of alternating prevailing air masses - tropical in summer, moderate in winter. The average monthly air temperature in summer exceeds 20 ° С, in winter - 4 ° С. On land, the amount and regime of atmospheric precipitation strongly depend on the distance from the oceans; as a result, landscapes and natural zones vary greatly. On each of the continents, three main climatic zones.

In the west of the continents dominates Mediterranean climate(semi-dry subtropics) with summer anticyclones and winter cyclones. Summer here is hot (20-25 ° С), little cloudy and dry, it rains in winter, relatively cold (5-10 ° С). Average annual precipitation is about 400-600 mm. In addition to the Mediterranean itself, such a climate prevails on the southern coast of Crimea, western California, southern Africa, and southwestern Australia. The predominant type of vegetation is Mediterranean forests and shrubs.

In the east of the continents dominates monsoon subtropical climate... The temperature conditions of the western and eastern outskirts of the continents differ little. Abundant precipitation, brought by the oceanic monsoon, falls here mainly in summer.

Temperate zone

In the zone of year-round prevalence of moderate air masses, intense cyclonic activity causes frequent and significant changes in air pressure and temperature. The prevalence of westerly winds is most noticeable over the oceans and in the Southern Hemisphere. In addition to the main seasons - winter and summer, there are noticeable and rather long transitional ones - autumn and spring. Due to the large differences in temperature and humidity, many researchers classify the climate of the northern part of the temperate zone as subarctic (Köppen's classification), or distinguish it into an independent climatic zone - boreal.

Subpolar

Intense cyclonic activity occurs over the subpolar oceans, the weather is windy and cloudy, and there is a lot of precipitation. Subarctic climate dominates in the north of Eurasia and North America, characterized by dry (precipitation no more than 300 mm per year), long and cold winters, and cold summers. Despite the small amount of precipitation, low temperatures and permafrost contribute to waterlogging of the area. A similar climate in the Southern Hemisphere - Subantarctic climate captures land only on the subantarctic islands and on Graham Land. In the Köppen classification, the subpolar or boreal climate is understood as the climate of the taiga zone.

Polar

Polar climate characterized by year-round negative air temperatures and scant precipitation (100-200 mm per year). It dominates in the Arctic Ocean and Antarctica. The mildest in the Atlantic sector of the Arctic, the harshest - on the plateau of East Antarctica. In the Köppen classification, the polar climate includes not only the ice climate zones, but also the climate of the tundra zone.

Climate and man

The climate has a decisive effect on the water regime, soil, flora and fauna, on the possibility of cultivating crops. Accordingly, the possibilities of settling people, the development of agriculture, industry, energy and transport, the living conditions and health of the population depend on the climate. Heat loss by the human body occurs through radiation, heat conduction, convection and evaporation of moisture from the surface of the body. With a certain increase in these heat losses, a person experiences unpleasant sensations and the possibility of illness appears. V cold weather there is an increase in these losses, dampness and strong winds increase the cooling effect. During weather changes, stress becomes more frequent, appetite worsens, biorhythms are disrupted and resistance to diseases decreases. The climate determines the binding of diseases to certain seasons and regions, for example, pneumonia and influenza are sick mainly in winter in temperate latitudes, malaria occurs in the humid tropics and subtropics, where climatic conditions favor the reproduction of malaria mosquitoes. The climate is also taken into account in health care (resorts, epidemic control, public hygiene), and affects the development of tourism and sports. According to information from the history of mankind (famine, floods, abandoned settlements, migrations of peoples), it is possible to restore some of the climatic changes of the past.

Anthropogenic changes in the environment of functioning of the climate-forming processes change the nature of their course. Human activities have a significant impact on the local climate. The influx of heat from fuel combustion, pollution by industrial products and carbon dioxide, which alter the absorption of solar energy, cause an increase in air temperature, which is noticeable in large cities. Among the anthropogenic processes that have taken global, are

see also

Notes (edit)

1. (unspecified) ... Archived April 4, 2013.
2. , p. 5.
3. Local climate //: [in 30 volumes] / Ch. ed. A.M. Prokhorov
4. Microclimate // Great Soviet Encyclopedia: [in 30 volumes] / Ch. ed. A.M. Prokhorov... - 3rd ed. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969-1978.

The content of the article

CLIMATE, long-term weather regime in a given area. The weather at any given time is characterized by certain combinations of temperature, humidity, wind direction and speed. In some types of climates, the weather changes significantly every day or according to seasons, in others it remains unchanged. Climate descriptions are based on statistical analysis average and extreme meteorological characteristics. As a factor natural environment climate affects geographic distribution vegetation, soil and water resources and hence on land use and economy. Climate also affects human living conditions and health.

Climatology is the science of climate that studies the causes of formation different types climate, their geographical location and the relationship of climate and other natural phenomena. Climatology is closely related to meteorology, a branch of physics that studies the short-term states of the atmosphere, i.e. the weather.

CLIMATE FORMING FACTORS

Position of the Earth.

When the Earth revolves around the Sun, the angle between the polar axis and the perpendicular to the orbital plane remains constant and is 23 ° 30ў. This movement explains the change in the angle of incidence of sunlight on the earth's surface at noon at a certain latitude during the year. The greater the angle of incidence of the sun's rays on the Earth in a given place, the more efficiently the Sun heats the surface. Only between the Northern and Southern tropics (from 23 ° 30ў N to 23 ° 30ў S) do the sun's rays fall vertically on the Earth at certain times of the year, and here the Sun always rises high above the horizon at noon. Therefore, in the tropics it is usually warm at any time of the year. At higher latitudes, where the Sun is lower above the horizon, the heating of the earth's surface is less. There are significant seasonal changes in temperature (which does not happen in the tropics), and in winter the angle of incidence of sunlight is relatively small and the days are much shorter. At the equator, day and night always have equal duration, while at the poles, day lasts the entire summer half of the year, and in winter the Sun never rises above the horizon. The length of the polar day only partially compensates for the low standing of the Sun above the horizon, and as a result, the summer is cool here. In dark winters, the polar regions quickly lose heat and become very cool.

Distribution of land and sea.

Water heats up and cools more slowly than dry land. Therefore, the air temperature over the oceans has less daily and seasonal changes than over the continents. In coastal areas, where winds blow from the sea, summers are generally cooler and winters warmer than in the interior of the continents at the same latitude. The climate of such windward coasts is called maritime. The interior regions of the continents in temperate latitudes are characterized by significant differences in summer and winter temperatures. In such cases, they speak of a continental climate.

Water areas are the main source of atmospheric moisture. When winds blow from the warm oceans onto land, there is a lot of rainfall. On windward coasts it is usually higher relative humidity and cloudy and more foggy days than inland regions.

Circulation of the atmosphere.

The nature of the baric field and the rotation of the Earth determine the general circulation of the atmosphere, due to which heat and moisture are constantly redistributed over the earth's surface. Winds blow from high pressure areas to low pressure areas. High pressure is usually associated with cold, dense air, while low pressure is associated with warm, less dense air. The rotation of the Earth causes air currents to deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This deviation is called the Coriolis effect.

In both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, there are three main wind zones in the surface layers of the atmosphere. In the intertropical convergence zone at the equator, the northeastern trade wind approaches the southeastern trade wind. Tradewinds originate in high-pressure subtropical regions, most developed over the oceans. Air currents, moving towards the poles and deflecting under the influence of the Coriolis force, form the predominant westerly transport. In the region of polar fronts of temperate latitudes, the western transport meets the cold air of high latitudes, forming a zone of baric systems with low pressure in the center (cyclones) moving from west to east. Although the air currents in the polar regions are not so pronounced, sometimes the polar eastward transport is distinguished. These winds blow mainly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. Cold air masses often penetrate temperate latitudes.

Winds in areas of convergence of air currents form ascending air currents, which cools with height. In this case, the formation of clouds is possible, often accompanied by precipitation. Therefore, a lot of precipitation falls in the intertropical convergence zone and frontal zones in the belt of the prevailing western transport.

Winds blowing in the higher layers of the atmosphere close the circulation system in both hemispheres. The air that rises upward in the convergence zones rushes into the high-pressure area and descends there. At the same time, with increasing pressure, it heats up, which leads to the formation of a dry climate, especially on land. These downdrafts define the climate of the Sahara, located in the subtropical high-pressure belt in North Africa.

Seasonal changes in heating and cooling determine seasonal movements of the main baric formations and wind systems. Wind zones in summer shift towards the poles, which leads to changes in weather conditions at a given latitude. So, for African savannas covered with herbaceous vegetation with sparsely growing trees, are characterized by rainy summers (due to the influence of the intertropical convergence zone) and dry winters, when a high pressure area with downgrading air flows into this territory.

The seasonal changes in the general circulation of the atmosphere are also influenced by the distribution of land and sea. In the summer, when the Asian continent warms up and a lower pressure area is established over it than over the surrounding oceans, the coastal southern and southeastern regions are affected by moist air currents directed from the sea to the land and bringing abundant rains. In winter, air flows from the cold surface of the mainland to the oceans, and much less rain falls. Such winds, which change direction to the opposite depending on the season, are called monsoons.

Ocean currents

are formed under the influence of near-surface winds and differences in water density due to changes in its salinity and temperature. The direction of currents is influenced by the Coriolis force, the shape of the sea basins and the outlines of the coast. In general, the circulation of ocean currents is similar to the distribution of air currents over the oceans and occurs clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern.

Crossing heading towards the poles warm currents, the air becomes warmer and more humid and has a corresponding effect on the climate. Oceanic currents heading towards the equator carry cool waters... Passing along the western outskirts of the continents, they lower the temperature and moisture capacity of the air, and, accordingly, the climate under their influence becomes cooler and drier. Due to the condensation of moisture near the cold sea surface, fog often occurs in such areas.

The relief of the earth's surface.

Large landforms have a significant impact on the climate, which changes depending on the height of the terrain and in the interaction of air currents with orographic obstacles. The air temperature usually decreases with height, which leads to the formation of a cooler climate in the mountains and on the plateau than in the adjacent lowlands. In addition, hills and mountains form obstacles that force the air to rise and expand. As it expands, it cools. This cooling, called adiabatic cooling, often leads to condensation of moisture and the formation of clouds and precipitation. Most of the precipitation due to the barrier effect of mountains falls on the windward side, while the leeward side remains in the "rain shadow". Air descending on leeward slopes heats up when compressed, forming a warm, dry wind known as a phene.

CLIMATE AND LATITUDE

In climatic surveys of the Earth, it is advisable to consider latitudinal zones. The distribution of climatic zones in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres is symmetrical. North and south of the equator are tropical, subtropical, temperate, subpolar and polar zones. The baric fields and zones of prevailing winds are also symmetrical. Consequently, most of the climate types in one hemisphere can be found at similar latitudes in the other hemisphere.

MAIN CLIMATE TYPES

Climate classification provides an ordered system for characterizing climate types, their regionalization and mapping. The types of climate that prevail over large areas are called macroclimates. A macroclimatic region should have more or less homogeneous climatic conditions that distinguish it from other regions, although it is only a generalized characteristic (since there are no two places with an identical climate), more consistent with realities than the allocation of climatic regions only on the basis of belonging to a certain latitudinal -the geographical belt.

Ice sheet climate

dominates in Greenland and Antarctica, where average monthly temperatures are below 0 ° C. In the dark winter season, these regions do not receive solar radiation at all, although there are twilight and auroras. Even in summer, the sun's rays fall on the earth's surface at a slight angle, which reduces the heating efficiency. Most of the incoming solar radiation is reflected by ice. Both summer and winter, the elevated regions of the Antarctic Ice Sheet are characterized by low temperatures. The climate of the interior of Antarctica is much colder than the climate of the Arctic, since the southern continent is large and high, and the Arctic Ocean softens the climate, despite the widespread distribution of pack ice. In summer, during short warmings, drifting ice sometimes melts.

Precipitation on ice sheets falls in the form of snow or small particles of ice fog. The interior regions receive only 50–125 mm of precipitation annually, but more than 500 mm can fall on the coast. Sometimes cyclones bring clouds and snow to these areas. Snowfalls are often accompanied by strong winds that carry significant amounts of snow, blowing it off the rocks. Strong katabatic winds with blizzards blow from the cold ice sheet, carrying snow to the coast.

Subpolar climate

manifests itself in the tundra regions on the northern outskirts of North America and Eurasia, as well as on the Antarctic Peninsula and adjacent islands. In eastern Canada and Siberia, the southern border of this climatic zone runs significantly south of the Arctic Circle due to the strongly pronounced influence of vast land masses. This leads to long and extremely cold winters. Summers are short and cool, with average monthly temperatures rarely exceeding + 10 ° C. To some extent, long days compensate for the short summer duration, but in most of the territory, the heat received is not enough to completely thaw the soil. Permafrost soil, called permafrost, inhibits plant growth and the filtration of melt water into the soil. Therefore, in summer, flat areas turn out to be swampy. On the coast, winter temperatures are slightly higher, while summer temperatures are slightly lower than in the interior regions of the mainland. In summer, when humid air is above cold water or sea ice, fog often occurs on the Arctic coasts.

Annual precipitation usually does not exceed 380 mm. Most of them fall in the form of rain or snow in the summer, during the passage of cyclones. On the coast, most of the precipitation can be brought by winter cyclones. However, the low temperatures and clear weather of the cold season, typical for most areas with a subpolar climate, are unfavorable for significant snow accumulation.

Subarctic climate

It is also known under the name "taiga climate" (according to the prevailing type of vegetation - coniferous forests). This climatic zone covers the temperate latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere - the northern regions of North America and Eurasia, located immediately south of the subpolar climate zone. Sharp seasonal climatic differences are manifested here due to the position of this climatic zone in rather high latitudes in the inner parts of the continents. Winters are long and extremely cold, and the farther north, the shorter the days. Summers are short and cool with long days. In winter, the period with negative temperatures is very long, and in summer the temperature at times can exceed + 32 ° С. In Yakutsk, the average temperature in January is –43 ° С, in July - + 19 ° С, i.e. the annual temperature range reaches 62 ° C. A milder climate is typical for coastal areas, such as southern Alaska or northern Scandinavia.

Most of the climatic zone under consideration receives less than 500 mm of precipitation per year, and their amount is maximum on the windward coasts and minimum in the inner part of Siberia. There is very little snowfall in winter, snowfalls are associated with rare cyclones. Summers are usually more humid, with rain falling mainly when passing atmospheric fronts... Fogs and overcast clouds are frequent on the coasts. In winter, in severe frosts, ice fogs hang over the snow cover.

Humid continental climate with short summers

characteristic of a vast strip of temperate latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, it stretches from the prairies in southern central Canada to the Atlantic coast, and in Eurasia it covers most of of Eastern Europe and some areas of Central Siberia. The same type of climate is observed in the Japanese island of Hokkaido and in the south of the Far East. The main climatic features these areas are determined by the prevailing westerly transport and the frequent passage of atmospheric fronts. In severe winters, average air temperatures can drop to –18 ° C. Summers are short and cool, with a frost-free period of less than 150 days. The annual temperature range is not as great as in the subarctic climate. In Moscow, the average temperatures in January are –9 ° С, in July - + 18 ° С.In this climatic zone, there is a constant threat to Agriculture represent spring frosts. In the coastal provinces of Canada, in New England and on about. Hokkaido winters are warmer than inland areas, as the easterly winds bring in warmer ocean air at times.

Annual precipitation ranges from less than 500 mm in the interior of the continents to over 1000 mm on the coasts. In most of the region, precipitation falls mainly in summer, often during thunderstorm showers. Winter precipitation, mainly in the form of snow, is associated with the passage of fronts in cyclones. Blizzards are often seen in the rear of the cold front.

Humid continental climate with long summers.

Air temperatures and the length of the summer season increase southward in humid continental climates. This type of climate is manifested in the temperate latitudinal belt of North America from the eastern Great Plains to the Atlantic coast, and in southeastern Europe - in the lower reaches of the Danube. Similar climatic conditions are also expressed in northeastern China and central Japan. It is also dominated by the western transfer. The average temperature of the warmest month is + 22 ° С (but temperatures can exceed + 38 ° С), summer nights are warm. Winters are not as cold as in humid continental climates with short summer, but the temperature sometimes drops below 0 ° С.The annual temperature range is usually 28 ° С, as, for example, in Peoria (Illinois, USA), where the average January temperature is –4 ° С, and in July - + 24 ° С. On the coast, the annual temperature amplitudes decrease.

Most often, in a humid continental climate with long summers, from 500 to 1100 mm of precipitation falls per year. The greatest amount of precipitation is brought by summer thunderstorms during the growing season. In winter, rains and snowfalls are mainly associated with the passage of cyclones and associated fronts.

Temperate maritime climate

inherent in the western coasts of the continents, primarily in northwestern Europe, the central part of the Pacific coast of North America, southern Chile, southeastern Australia and New Zealand. The prevailing westerly winds blowing from the oceans have a softening effect on the course of air temperature. Winters are mild with average temperatures of the coldest month above 0 ° C, but when the Arctic air currents reach the coasts, there are also frosts. Summers are generally quite warm; with intrusions of continental air during the day, the temperature can rise for a short time to + 38 ° C. This type of climate with a small annual temperature amplitude is the most moderate among climates of temperate latitudes. For example, in Paris, the average January temperature is + 3 ° С, in July - + 18 ° С.

In areas of a temperate maritime climate, the average annual precipitation ranges from 500 to 2500 mm. The most humidified are the windward slopes of the coastal mountains. In many areas, rainfall occurs fairly evenly throughout the year, with the exception of the Pacific Northwest coast of the United States, which has very wet winters. Cyclones moving from the oceans bring a lot of precipitation to the western continental margins. In winter, as a rule, the weather is cloudy with light rains and occasional short-term snowfalls. Fogs are common on the coasts, especially in summer and autumn.

Humid subtropical climate

characteristic of the eastern coasts of the continents to the north and south of the tropics. The main areas of distribution are the southeastern United States, some southeastern regions of Europe, northern India and Myanmar, eastern China and southern Japan, northeastern Argentina, Uruguay and southern Brazil, the coast of Natal province in South Africa and the east coast of Australia. Summers in the humid subtropics are long and hot, with the same temperatures as in the tropics. The average temperature of the warmest month exceeds + 27 ° C, and the maximum is + 38 ° C. Winters are mild, with average monthly temperatures above 0 ° C, but occasional frosts have a detrimental effect on vegetable and citrus plantations.

In humid subtropics, the average annual precipitation ranges from 750 to 2000 mm, the distribution of precipitation over the seasons is quite even. In winter, rains and occasional snowfalls are brought mainly by cyclones. In summer, precipitation falls mainly in the form of thunderstorms associated with powerful inflows of warm and humid oceanic air, characteristic of the monsoon circulation. East Asia... Hurricanes (or typhoons) occur in late summer and fall, especially in the Northern Hemisphere.

Subtropical climate with dry summers

typical of the western coasts of the continents north and south of the tropics. In Southern Europe and North Africa, such climatic conditions are typical for the Mediterranean coasts, which is why this climate is also called Mediterranean. The climate is the same in southern California, central Chile, in the extreme south of Africa and in several areas in southern Australia. All these areas have hot summers and mild winters. As in the humid subtropics, there are occasional frosts in winter. Inland temperatures are much higher in summer than on coasts and are often the same as in tropical deserts. In general, clear weather prevails. Fogs are common on the coasts near which ocean currents pass in summer. For example, in San Francisco, summers are cool, foggy, and the warmest month is September.

The maximum precipitation is associated with the passage of cyclones in winter, when the prevailing western air currents are shifted towards the equator. The influence of anticyclones and downdrafts under the oceans are responsible for the dryness of the summer season. The average annual precipitation in a subtropical climate ranges from 380 to 900 mm and reaches its maximum values ​​on the coasts and slopes of the mountains. In summer, there is usually not enough rainfall for the normal growth of trees, and therefore a specific type of evergreen shrub vegetation develops there, known as maquis, chaparral, mali, macchia and finbosh.

Semi-arid climate of temperate latitudes

(synonym - steppe climate) is typical mainly for inland regions, remote from the oceans - sources of moisture - and usually located in the rain shadow of high mountains. The main regions with a semiarid climate are the intermontane basins and the Great Plains of North America and the steppes of central Eurasia. Hot summers and cold winters are due to the inland position in temperate latitudes. At least one winter month has an average temperature below 0 ° C, and the average temperature of the warmest summer month exceeds + 21 ° C. The temperature regime and the duration of the frost-free period vary significantly depending on latitude.

The term "semi-arid" is used to characterize this climate because it is less dry than the arid climate itself. The average annual precipitation is usually less than 500 mm, but more than 250 mm. Since for the development of steppe vegetation in conditions of more high temperatures more precipitation is needed, the latitudinal-geographical and altitude position of the area determine climatic changes. For a semiarid climate, there are no general patterns of precipitation distribution throughout the year. For example, in areas bordering the subtropics with dry summers, the maximum precipitation is observed in winter, while in areas adjacent to areas of humid continental climate, it rains mainly in summer. Cyclones in temperate latitudes bring most of the winter precipitation, which often falls as snow and can be accompanied by strong winds. Summer thunderstorms are not uncommon with hail. The amount of precipitation varies greatly from year to year.

Arid climate of temperate latitudes

inherent mainly in the Central Asian deserts, and in the west of the United States - only in small areas in intermontane basins. The temperatures are the same as in regions with a semi-arid climate, however, there is not enough rainfall for the existence of a closed natural vegetation cover, and the average annual amounts usually do not exceed 250 mm. As in semiarid climatic conditions, the amount of precipitation, which determines the aridity, depends on the thermal regime.

Semi-arid climate of low latitudes

mostly typical of the margins of tropical deserts (eg, the Sahara and the deserts of central Australia), where downdrafts in subtropical high pressure zones eliminate precipitation. The climate in question differs from the semiarid climate of temperate latitudes in very hot summers and warm winters. Average monthly temperatures are above 0 ° C, although frost sometimes occurs in winter, especially in areas farthest from the equator and located on high altitudes... The amount of precipitation required for the existence of closed natural herbaceous vegetation is higher here than in temperate latitudes. In the equatorial zone, it rains mainly in summer, while on the outer (northern and southern) outskirts of deserts, the maximum precipitation occurs in winter. Most of the precipitation falls in the form of thunderstorms, and in winter it is brought in by cyclones.

Arid climate of low latitudes.

It is a hot, dry climate of tropical deserts that stretch along the Northern and Southern tropics and are influenced by subtropical anticyclones for most of the year. Salvation from the sweltering summer heat can be found only on the coasts washed by cold ocean currents, or in the mountains. On the plains, the average summer temperatures noticeably exceed + 32 ° С, winter temperatures are usually above + 10 ° С.

In most of this climatic region, the average annual precipitation does not exceed 125 mm. It so happens that precipitation has not been recorded at all at many meteorological stations for several years in a row. Sometimes the average annual precipitation can reach 380 mm, but this is still enough only for the development of sparse desert vegetation. Occasionally precipitation falls in the form of short, strong thunderstorms, but the water drains quickly, forming flash floods. The driest areas are along the western coasts of South America and Africa, where cold ocean currents inhibit cloud formation and precipitation. Fogs are common on these coasts, formed by condensation of moisture in the air over the colder ocean surface.

Variably humid tropical climate.

Regions with such a climate are located in tropical sublatitudinal zones, several degrees north and south of the equator. This climate is also called monsoon tropical, as it prevails in those parts of South Asia that are influenced by monsoons. Other regions with such a climate are the tropics of Central and South America, Africa and Northern Australia. Average summer temperatures are usually approx. + 27 ° С, and winter - approx. + 21 ° C. The hottest month, as a rule, precedes the summer rainy season.

Average annual precipitation ranges from 750 to 2000 mm. During the summer rainy season, the intertropical convergence zone has a decisive influence on the climate. Thunderstorms often occur here, sometimes overcast clouds with prolonged rains remain for a long time. Winter is dry, as subtropical anticyclones dominate this season. In some areas, it does not rain for two to three winter months. In South Asia, the wet season coincides with the summer monsoon, which brings moisture from the Indian Ocean, and in winter, Asian continental dry air masses spread here.

Humid tropical climate

or humid climate rainforest, distributed in equatorial latitudes in the Amazon basins in South America and Congo in Africa, on the Malacca Peninsula and on the islands of Southeast Asia. In the humid tropics, the average temperature of any month is not less than + 17 ° C, usually the average monthly temperature is approx. + 26 ° C. As in the variable humid tropics, due to the high noon standing of the Sun above the horizon and the same day length throughout the year, seasonal temperature fluctuations are small. Humid air, cloudiness and dense vegetation prevent nighttime cooling and maintain maximum daytime temperatures below + 37 ° C, lower than in higher latitudes.

The average annual rainfall in the humid tropics ranges from 1500 to 2500 mm, the distribution over the seasons is usually fairly even. Precipitation is mainly associated with the intertropical convergence zone, which is located slightly north of the equator. Seasonal displacements of this zone to the north and south in some areas lead to the formation of two maximum precipitation during the year, separated by drier periods. Thousands of thunderstorms roll over the humid tropics every day. In between, the sun shines in full force.

Highland climates.

In high-mountainous regions, a significant variety of climatic conditions is due to latitudinal-geographical position, orographic barriers and different exposure of slopes in relation to the Sun and moisture-carrying air currents. Even at the equator, in the mountains, there are snowfields-migrations. The lower boundary of the eternal snow falls towards the poles, reaching sea level in the polar regions. Similarly, other boundaries of high-altitude thermal belts decrease as they approach high latitudes. The windward slopes of the mountain ranges receive more precipitation. On mountain slopes that are open to cold air intrusion, the temperature may drop. In general, the climate of the highlands is characterized by lower temperatures, higher cloudiness, more precipitation and a more complex wind regime than the climate of the plains at the corresponding latitudes. The pattern of seasonal changes in temperature and precipitation in the highlands is usually the same as in the adjacent plains.

MESO- AND MICROCLIMATES

Territories that are inferior in size to macroclimatic regions also have climatic features that deserve special study and classification. Mesoclimates (from the Greek meso - middle) are the climates of territories measuring several square kilometers, for example, wide river valleys, intermountain depressions, depressions of large lakes or cities. In terms of the area of ​​distribution and the nature of the differences, the mesoclimates are intermediate between macroclimates and microclimates. The latter characterize the climatic conditions in small areas of the earth's surface. Microclimatic observations are carried out, for example, on city streets or on test sites established within a homogeneous plant community.

EXTREME CLIMATE INDICATORS

Climatic characteristics such as temperature and precipitation vary over a wide range between extreme (minimum and maximum) values. Although rarely observed, extremes are as important as averages to understanding the nature of the climate. The warmest climate is in the tropics, with the tropical rainforest climate being hot and humid, and the arid climate of low latitudes hot and dry. Maximum temperatures air marked in tropical deserts. The highest temperature in the world - + 57.8 ° С - was recorded in El-Azizia (Libya) on September 13, 1922, and the lowest - -89.2 ° С at the Soviet Vostok station in Antarctica on July 21, 1983.

Extreme precipitation values ​​have been recorded in various parts of the world. For example, in the 12 months from August 1860 to July 1861 in the town of Cherrapunji (India), 26 461 mm fell. The average annual rainfall at this point, one of the rainiest on the planet, is approx. 12,000 mm. Less data is available on the amount of snow that fell. At Paradise Ranger Station in national park Mount Rainier, Washington, USA, during the winter of 1971-1972, 28,500 mm of snow was recorded. At many meteorological stations in the tropics with long observation records, precipitation has never been observed at all. There are many such places in the Sahara and on the west coast of South America.

At extreme wind speeds, measuring instruments (anemometers, anemographs, etc.) often failed. The highest wind speeds in the surface air layer are likely to develop in tornadoes (tornadoes), where, according to estimates, they can well exceed 800 km / h. In hurricanes or typhoons, the wind sometimes reaches speeds of over 320 km / h. Hurricanes are very common in the Caribbean and Western Pacific.

IMPACT OF CLIMATE ON BIOTA

The temperature and light conditions and moisture supply, necessary for the development of plants and limiting their geographical distribution, depend on the climate. Most plants cannot grow at temperatures below + 5 ° C, and many species die at subzero temperatures. With an increase in temperatures, the needs of plants for moisture increase. Light is essential for photosynthesis as well as for flowering and seed development. Shading the soil with tree crowns in dense forest suppresses the growth of lower plants. An important factor is also the wind, which significantly changes the temperature and humidity regime.

The vegetation of each region is an indicator of its climate, since the distribution of plant communities is largely influenced by the climate. The vegetation of the tundra in a subpolar climate is formed only by such undersized forms as lichens, mosses, grasses and low shrubs. The short growing season and widespread permafrost make it difficult for trees to grow everywhere except in river valleys and southern slopes, where the soil thaws to greater depths in summer. Coniferous forests from spruce, fir, pine and larch, also called taiga, grow in a subarctic climate.

Wet areas of temperate and low latitudes are especially favorable for the growth of forests. The densest forests are confined to areas of a temperate maritime climate and humid tropics. Areas of humid continental and humid subtropical climate are also mostly forested. In the presence of a dry season, for example, in areas of a subtropical climate with dry summers or a variable-humid tropical climate, plants adapt accordingly, forming either a short or sparse tree layer. So, in savannas in conditions of a variable-humid tropical climate, grasslands with single trees growing at large distances from one another predominate.

In semiarid climates of temperate and low latitudes, where everywhere (except river valleys) it is too dry for tree growth, herbaceous steppe vegetation dominates. The grains are undersized here, and an admixture of dwarf shrubs and dwarf shrubs, such as wormwood in North America, is also possible. In temperate latitudes, the grass steppes in more humid conditions at the borders of their range are replaced by tall grass prairies. In arid conditions, plants grow far from one another, often have thick bark or fleshy stems and leaves that can store moisture. The driest areas of tropical deserts are completely devoid of vegetation and are bare rocky or sandy surfaces.

The climatic altitudinal zonation in the mountains determines the corresponding vertical differentiation of vegetation - from herbaceous communities of the foothill plains to forests and alpine meadows.

Many animals are able to adapt to a wide range of climatic conditions. For example, mammals in colder climates or in winter have warmer fur. However, they also care about the availability of food and water, which varies with climate and season. Many animal species are characterized by seasonal migrations from one climatic region to another. For example, in winter, when grasses and shrubs dry up in the changing tropical climate of Africa, there are massive migrations of herbivores and predators to more humid areas.

V natural areas the earth's soil, vegetation and climate are closely intertwined. Heat and moisture determine the nature and rate of chemical, physical and biological processes, as a result of which rocks on slopes of different steepness and exposure are changed and a huge variety of soils is created. Where the soil is frozen by permafrost for most of the year, as in the tundra or high in the mountains, the processes of soil formation are slowed down. Under arid conditions, soluble salts are usually found on the soil surface or in near-surface horizons. In humid climates, excess moisture seeps downward, carrying soluble mineral compounds and clay particles to significant depths. Some of the most fertile soils are the products of recent accumulation - wind, fluvial or volcanic. Such young soils have not yet undergone strong leaching and therefore retained their nutrient reserves.

Crop distribution and soil cultivation practices are closely related to climatic conditions. Bananas and rubber trees require an abundance of heat and moisture. Date palms grow well only in oases in arid low-latitude areas. Most crops in arid temperate and low latitudes require irrigation. A common type of land use in semiarid climates where grasses are common is grazing. Cotton and rice have a longer growing season than spring wheat or potatoes, and all of these crops suffer from frost damage. In the mountains, agricultural production is differentiated by altitude in the same way as natural vegetation. Deep valleys in the humid tropics Latin America are located in the hot zone (tierra caliente) and grow tropical crops there. At slightly higher altitudes in the temperate zone (tierra templada), coffee is the typical crop. Above is the cold belt (tierra fria), where crops and potatoes are grown. In an even colder zone (tierra helada), located just below the snow line, livestock grazing is possible on alpine meadows, and the range of crops is extremely limited.

The climate affects the health and living conditions of people as well as their economic activities. The human body loses heat through radiation, heat conduction, convection and evaporation of moisture from the surface of the body. If these losses are too large in cold weather or too small in hot weather, the person experiences discomfort and may become ill. Low relative humidity and high wind speed enhance the cooling effect. Changes in the weather lead to stress, impair appetite, disrupt biorhythms and reduce the human body's resistance to disease. The climate also affects the living conditions of pathogenic microorganisms, disease-causing and therefore seasonal and regional disease outbreaks occur. Pneumonia and influenza epidemics in temperate latitudes often occur in winter. Malaria is common in the tropics and subtropics, where there are conditions for the breeding of malaria mosquitoes. Diseases caused by malnutrition are indirectly related to climate, as in food products produced in a particular region, due to the influence of climate on plant growth and soil composition, some nutrients may be lacking.

CLIMATE CHANGE

Rocks, plant fossils, relief and glacial deposits contain information about significant fluctuations in average temperatures and precipitation over geological time. Climate change can also be studied by analyzing tree rings of wood, alluvial deposits, ocean and lake bottom sediments, and organic peat deposits. Over the past few million years, the overall climate has been cooling, and now, judging by the continuous reduction of polar ice sheets, we seem to be at the end of the ice age.

Climatic changes for historical period can sometimes be reconstructed based on information about famines, floods, abandoned settlements and migrations of peoples. Continuous series of air temperature measurements are available only for meteorological stations located mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. They span only a little over one century. These data indicate that over the past 100 years, the average temperature on the globe has increased by almost 0.5 ° C. This change did not occur smoothly, but abruptly - sharp warming was replaced by relatively stable stages.

Experts in various fields of knowledge have proposed numerous hypotheses to explain the causes of climate change. Some believe that climatic cycles are determined by periodic fluctuations in solar activity with an interval of approx. 11 years. Annual and seasonal temperatures could be influenced by changes in the shape of the Earth's orbit, which led to a change in the distance between the Sun and the Earth. Currently, the Earth is closest to the Sun in January, but about 10,500 years ago it was in this position in July. According to another hypothesis, depending on the angle of inclination of the earth's axis, the amount of solar radiation entering the earth changed, which affected the general circulation of the atmosphere. It is also possible that the polar axis of the Earth occupied a different position. If the geographic poles were located at the latitude of the modern equator, then, accordingly, the climatic zones also shifted.

The so-called geographical theories explain long-term climate fluctuations by movements of the earth's crust and changes in the position of continents and oceans. In light of global plate tectonics, continents have moved over geologic time. As a result, their position changed in relation to the oceans, as well as in latitude. Mountain building has led to the formation of mountain systems with cooler and possibly more humid climates.

Air pollution also contributes to climate change. Large masses of dust and gases that entered the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions occasionally became an obstacle to solar radiation and led to cooling of the earth's surface. Increases in the concentration of certain gases in the atmosphere exacerbate the overall warming trend.

Greenhouse effect.

Like the glass roof of a greenhouse, many gases allow most of the sun's heat and light energy to pass to the Earth's surface, but prevent the heat radiated by it from quickly escaping into the surrounding space. The main greenhouse gases are water vapor and carbon dioxide, as well as methane, fluorocarbons and nitrogen oxides. Without the greenhouse effect, the earth's surface temperature would drop so much that the entire planet would be covered with ice. However, exaggerating the greenhouse effect can also be catastrophic.

Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, the amount of greenhouse gases (mainly carbon dioxide) in the atmosphere has increased due to economic activity human and especially the burning of fossil fuels. Many scientists now believe that the rise in global average temperature since 1850 is mainly due to an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide and other anthropogenic greenhouse gases. If modern tendencies The use of fossil fuels will continue into the 21st century, with the global average temperature likely to rise by 2.5–8 ° C by 2075. If fossil fuels are used at a faster rate than currently, such an increase in temperature could occur as early as 2030.

The projected increase in temperature could lead to the melting of polar ice and most mountain glaciers, as a result of which the sea level will rise by 30-120 cm. All this can also affect the changing weather conditions on Earth with such possible consequences as prolonged droughts in the leading agricultural regions of the world.

However, global warming as a consequence of the greenhouse effect can be slowed down if the carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels are reduced. Such a reduction would require restrictions on its use all over the world, more efficient energy consumption and expanding the use of alternative energy sources (for example, water, solar, wind, hydrogen, etc.).

Literature:

Poghosyan Kh.P. General circulation of the atmosphere... L., 1952
Blutgen I. Geography of climates, v. 1–2. M., 1972-1973
Vitvitsky G.N. Zonality of the Earth's climate... M., 1980
Yasamanov N.A. Ancient climates of the Earth... L., 1985
Climate fluctuations over the past millennium... L., 1988
Khromov S.P., Petrosyants M.A. Meteorology and climatology... M., 1994



In winter, the total solar radiation reaches the highest values ​​in the south of the Far East, in southern Transbaikalia and the Ciscaucasia. In January, the extreme south of Primorye receives over 200 MJ / m 2, the rest of the listed areas - over 150 MJ / km 2. To the north, the total radiation decreases rapidly due to the lower position of the Sun and a decrease in the length of the day. K 60 ° N it already decreases 3-4 times. North of the Arctic Circle, the polar night is established, the duration of which is 70 ° N. is 53 days. The radiation balance in winter is negative throughout the country.

Under these conditions, there is a strong cooling of the surface and the formation of the Asian maximum centered over Northern Mongolia, southeastern Altai, Tuva, and the south of the Baikal region. The pressure in the center of the anticyclone exceeds 1040 hPa (mbar). Two spurs extend from the Asian maximum: to the northeast, where the secondary Oymyakon center with a pressure of over 1030 hPa is formed, and to the west, to the connection with the Azores maximum, the Voeikov axis. It stretches through the Kazakh Upland to Uralsk - Saratov - Kharkov - Chisinau and further up to the southern coast of France. In the western regions of Russia within the Voeikov axis, the pressure drops to 1021 hPa, but remains higher than in the territories located to the north and south of the axis.

The Voeikov axis plays an important role in the climate separation. To the south of it (in Russia this is the south of the East European Plain and the Ciscaucasia), east and north-east winds blow, carrying dry and cold continental air of temperate latitudes from the Asian maximum. South-west and west winds blow to the north of the Voeikov axis. The role of the western transport in the northern part of the East European Plain and in the northwest of Western Siberia is enhanced by the Icelandic minimum, the trough of which reaches the Kara Sea (in the Varanger Fjord area, the pressure is 1007.5 hPa). Relatively warm and humid Atlantic air often enters these regions with a westerly transfer.

The rest of Siberia is dominated by winds with a southern component, carrying continental air from the Asian maximum.

Over the territory of the Northeast, in the conditions of a depression relief and minimal solar radiation in winter, continental arctic air is formed, which is very cold and dry. From the northeastern spur of high pressure, it rushes towards the Arctic and Pacific oceans.

In winter, the Aleutian minimum is formed near the eastern shores of Kamchatka. On the Commander Islands, in the southeastern part of Kamchatka, in the northern part of the Kuril island arc, the pressure is below 1003 hPa, on a significant part of the Kamchatka coast, the pressure is below 1006 hPa. Here, on the eastern outskirts of Russia, the low-pressure area is located in the immediate vicinity of the northeastern spur, therefore, a high pressure gradient is formed (especially near the northern coast of the Sea of ​​Okhotsk); cold continental air of temperate latitudes (in the south) and arctic (in the north) is carried to the water area of ​​the seas. The winds of the northern and northwestern points prevail.

In winter, the Arctic front is established over the water area of ​​the Barents and Kara Seas, and on Far East- over the Sea of ​​Okhotsk. The polar front at this time passes south of the territory of Russia. Only on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus is the influence of the cyclones of the Mediterranean branch of the polar front affected, the paths of which shift from Western Asia to the Black Sea due to the lower pressure over its expanses. The distribution of precipitation is associated with the frontal zones.

The distribution of not only moisture, but also heat on the territory of Russia in the cold period is largely associated with circulation processes, which is clearly evidenced by the course of the January isotherms.

The -4 ° C isotherm passes meridionally through the Kaliningrad region. The isotherm of -8 ° С passes near the western borders of the compact territory of Russia. In the south, it deviates to the Tsimlyansk reservoir and further to Astrakhan. The further east you go, the lower the January temperatures. Isotherms -32 ...- 36 ° C form closed circuits over Central Siberia and the North-East. In the basins of the North-East and the eastern part of Central Siberia, average January temperatures drop to -40 ..- 48 ° C. The cold pole of the northern hemisphere is Oymyakon, where the absolute minimum temperature in Russia is recorded, equal to -71 ° С.

The increase in the severity of winter to the east is associated with a decrease in the frequency of occurrence of Atlantic air masses and an increase in their transformation when moving over a cooled land. Where warmer air from the Atlantic (western regions of the country) penetrates much more often, winters are less severe.

In the south of the East European Plain and in the Ciscaucasia, isotherms are located sublatitudinally, rising from -10 ° С to -2 ...- 3 ° С. This is the effect of the radiation factor. Winter is milder than in the rest of the territory on the northwestern coast of the Kola Peninsula, where the average January temperature is -8 ° C and slightly higher. This is due to the flow of air warmed over the warm North Cape current.

In the Far East, the course of isotherms repeats the outlines of the coastline, forming a clearly pronounced concentration of isotherms along the coastline. The warming effect here affects the narrow coastal strip due to the prevailing air outflow from the mainland. The isotherm of -4 ° C stretches along the Kuril ridge. Slightly higher than the temperature on the Commander Islands Along the eastern coast of Kamchatka, the isotherm of -8 ° C stretches. And even in the coastal strip of Primorye, January temperatures are -10 ...- 12 ° С. As you can see, in Vladivostok, the average January temperature is lower than in Murmansk, which lies beyond the Arctic Circle, 25 ° further north.

The greatest amount of precipitation falls in the southeastern part of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands. They are brought by cyclones not only of the Okhotsk, but also mainly of the Mongolian and Pacific branches of the polar front, rushing into the Aleutian minimum. Pacific sea air is drawn into the front of these cyclones and carries the bulk of the sediment. But on most of the territory of Russia in winter, Atlantic air masses bring precipitation, therefore, the bulk of precipitation falls in the western regions of the country. To the east and northeast, the amount of precipitation decreases. A lot of precipitation falls on the southwestern slopes of the Greater Caucasus. They are brought by Mediterranean cyclones.

Winter precipitation in Russia falls predominantly in solid form, and snow cover is established almost everywhere, the height of which and the duration of occurrence vary within very wide limits.

The shortest duration of the snow cover is typical for the coastal regions of the Western and Eastern Ciscaucasia (less than 40 days). In the south of the European part (up to the latitude of Volgograd), snow lies less than 80 days a year, and in the extreme south of Primorye - less than 100 days. To the north and northeast, the duration of the snow cover increases to 240-260 days, reaching a maximum in Taimyr (over 260 days a year). Only on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus is a stable snow cover not formed, but during the winter there can be 10-20 days with snow.

Less than 10 cm snow thickness in the deserts of the Caspian region, in the coastal regions of the Eastern and Western Ciscaucasia. In the rest of the territory of the Ciscaucasia, on the East European Plain south of Volgograd, in Transbaikalia and the Kaliningrad region, the height of the snow cover is only 20 cm.In most of the territory, it ranges from 40-50 to 70 cm. In the northeastern (Ural) part of the East European the plains and in the Yenisei part of Western and Central Siberia, the height of the snow cover increases to 80-90 cm, and in the snowiest regions of the southeast of Kamchatka and the Kuriles - up to 2-3 m.

Thus, the presence of a sufficiently thick snow cover and its prolonged occurrence is characteristic of most of the country's territory, which is due to its position in temperate and high latitudes. With the northern position of Russia, the severity of the winter period and the height of the snow cover are of great importance for agriculture.