Culture in the 50s and 60s. Science, culture and education. Public education and higher education

Spiritual and Cultural Life in the USSR in the 50s - 60s.

The spiritual and cultural life of society during the Khrushchev “thaw” was contradictory. On the one hand, the process of renewal, liberalization in politics could not but cause a revival of culture, weakening of ideological control, the rise of science and education. On the other hand, the general approach to the cultural sphere was distinguished by the previous desire to place it at the service of the official ideology. Nevertheless, especially before the early 1960s, there was a spiritual revival of the creative intelligentsia. The spiritual center of the sixties was the magazine "New World", which was headed by A. T. Tvardovsky. The Sovremennik Theater began operating in Moscow under the direction of ON Efremov. Many writers, artists, scientists were able to visit abroad. Memoirs of Soviet military leaders began to be published: in previous years, none of the state and military leaders dared even write down their memoirs. In historical science, there was a departure from the dogmas of the "Short Course in the History of the CPSU (b)", the role of Stalin in the history of the Soviet state was revised. New magazines "Youth", "Moscow", "Our Contemporary", "Young Guard", "History of the USSR", "New and Contemporary History", "Culture and Life", almanacs and newspapers began to be published. New creative unions were formed. In 1958, the CPSU Central Committee adopted a resolution “On correcting mistakes in evaluating the operas Great Friendship, Bogdan Khmelnitsky, and From the Whole Heart”. A sign of the times was the rehabilitation of some of the cultural figures convicted under Stalin. Banned verses by S. A. Yesenin, D. A. Akhmatova, M. I. Tsvetaeva, stories by M. M. Zoshchenko and others were published. During the period of the “thaw,” F. A. Abramov, V. P. Astafiev, E. A. Evtushenko, R. I. Rozhdestvensky, A. A. Voznesensky, B. A. Akhmadulina, V. P. Aksenov, and others. However, the inconsistency of cultural policy made itself felt. Some works of literature and art were accepted by NS Khrushchev, his advisers and a number of cultural figures with hostility (the novels of VD Dudintsev "Not by Bread Alone", BL Pasternak "Doctor Zhivago", the film of M. M. Khutsiev " Ilyich's Outpost ”and others). The talented painters E. Belyutin, B. Zhutovsky, and the sculptor E. Unknown were undeservedly disgraced. Significant achievements were made in the development of science and technology, especially in astronautics (the launch of an artificial satellite; the flight of Yu. A. Gagarin; successes in rocketry). A large international research center, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, was established in Dubna. Much attention was paid to secondary and higher education: tuition fees in universities, technical schools and upper secondary schools were abolished; instead of a seven-year education, a universal compulsory eight-year education was introduced. The number of universities and research institutions has increased. The reform of the general education school, which began in 1958 (eleven instead of ten years), with an emphasis on industrial education and vocational training of students, was not scientifically substantiated. In 1964 it was abandoned. On the whole, the spiritual emancipation of the Soviet people in the period under review was not and could not be complete. In the early 1960s. there was an increase in the ideological diktat in the field of literature and art, intolerance of dissent was manifested. These years saw the beginning of the dissident movement.

Spiritual and Cultural Life in the USSR in the 50-60s

After the end of the war, centers of culture were restored: schools, theaters, museums. Labor training was introduced in schools, and in 58 a compulsory eight-year education was introduced. The system of evening and correspondence education is expanding. The task was to move to secondary education. In the first decade after the Stalinist decade, there were serious changes in spiritual life. The writer Ehrenburg called this period the "thaw". In 53, in the “new world”, Pomerantsev's article “on sincerity in literature” was published, where he first raised the question of what to write honestly means not to think about tall and not tall readers. The articles of Ovechkin and Abramov appeared in the same magazine. In 65, Sholokhov was awarded the Nobel Prize. Tvardovsky writes the poem "Tyorkin in the Next World". In the 50-60s. new names appeared in the literature. However, in the same years there were persecutions of the creative intelligentsia. In 57, Pasternak was expelled from the Writers' Union. In 58, he was forced to refuse the Nobel Prize. Science is making great strides, a number of modern physicists have been awarded the Nobel Prize: Prokhorov and Bossov for formulating the foundations of quantum electronics; Landau - for his work on superfluidity and superconductivity. In 58, on the initiative of Kurchaty, an international research center was created in Dubna, which is engaged in nuclear research. In 49, the USSR became the owner of a nuclear bomb, and in 53, thanks to the research of Sakharov and other scientists, a hydrogen bomb. Tupolev creates a TU 144 supersonic aircraft. Korolev creates practical cosmonautics. April 12, 1963 Gagarin made a flight into space, in 63 - Tereshkova. And in 65, Leonov made his first spacewalk in the world. The priority of scientific developments was given to the interests of the military-industrial complex. New types of heroes appear in cinematography, which are close and understandable to the viewer. The showing of Kalotozov's painting "The Cranes Are Flying" in Cannes became a triumphant one. Phenomena of the world level were: “Ivan's childhood” by Tarkovsky, “Clear sky” by Chukhrai, “The fate of a man” by Bondarchuk. The work of Vysotsky received universal recognition. The spiritual emancipation of the Soviet people covered only a narrow layer of the country's major cultural centers.

In the 50s - the first half of the 60s. The Soviet Union has made great strides in many areas. Russian science was making huge strides forward. In 1954, the first nuclear power plant in the world was put into operation in the USSR in Obninsk. The system of the Academy of Sciences developed. In 1957, a decision was made to create a large scientific center - Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In the Novosibirsk region, construction began on a scientific town (Akademgorodok), which a few years later turned into a major research center. At the same time, there was a process of creating branch academies: medical, agricultural, pedagogical, architecture and construction.

Major successes were achieved by Soviet science in the field of nuclear physics and semiconductor physics. In 1957, the world's most powerful accelerator of elementary particles, the synchrophasotron, began operating in the country. At the same time, the joint Institute for Nuclear Research launched its research. Scientific developments were accompanied by the process of personnel growth in quantitative terms. According to official data, in 1950 there were 162.5 thousand scientific workers in the USSR, and in 1960 - 354.2 thousand.

A real revolution in the consciousness of people took place after the launch of the first Soviet satellite on October 4, 1957. Several years later, on April 12, 1961, Yu. A. Gagarin at spaceship "Vostok" made the first ever flight around the globe. Human space exploration began.

A significant proportion of the difficulties experienced by the peoples of the USSR in the 50s and subsequent years was associated with the need to mobilize huge human and material resources in order to complete research and technical projects for the production of nuclear weapons in the shortest possible time. A large number of prominent scientists were forced to deal with defense problems. Impressive results in this direction were achieved already at the beginning of the 50s. So, in 1954, an air-to-air missile was adopted by the Air Force fighter aviation, aiming at a target using a radar beam. In 1959, an air-to-ground missile was adopted by the Air Force's strategic aviation, which could be launched from heavy bomber 200 km to the target and carry a nuclear warhead. In the same year, a group of scientists led by S.P.Korolev developed a mine version ballistic missile R-9, capable of carrying a nuclear charge.

The development of Russian culture in the "Khrushchev decade" was carried out largely under the influence of political reforms. In the first half of the 50s. the works of I. Ehrenburg, V. Dudintsev and a number of other authors have acquired special relevance.

The 20th Party Congress, which initially aroused many hopes of the Soviet intelligentsia, did not mean a revision of the question of the place and role of the creative person in socialist society. The "thaw" in the cultural life of the country was sanctioned by the authorities and existed within a certain framework.

Unable to accept the remaining control over art, on May 13, 1956, at his dacha in Peredelkino, the head of the Union of Writers of the USSR A. Fadeev committed suicide with a shot from a revolver. In a suicide letter addressed to the Central Committee of the CPSU, the famous writer noted that the art to which he gave his whole life "was ruined by the self-confident and ignorant leadership of the party, and now it cannot be corrected." Fadeev emphasized that he has a "complete distrust" of the current leaders, because one can expect "even worse from them than from the satrap Stalin. He was at least educated, and these are ignorant."

The party leadership, however, took a number of steps aimed at canceling individual decisions taken in the second half of the 40s. and related to national culture. Thus, on May 28, 1958, the Central Committee of the CPSU approved a resolution "On correcting mistakes in evaluating the operas Great Friendship, Bohdan Khmelnitsky and From the Whole Heart". The document noted that the talented composers D. Shostakovich, S. Prokofiev, A. Khachaturyan, V. Shebalin, G. Popov, N. Myaskovsky and others were indiscriminately called representatives of the "anti-popular formalistic trend." The assessment of the editorial articles of the Pravda newspaper, directed at one time to criticize these composers, was recognized as incorrect.

Simultaneously with the correction of the mistakes of past years, a real campaign of persecution of the famous writer BL Pasternak was launched at this time. In 1955 he completed the great novel Doctor Zhivago. A year later, the novel was submitted for publication in the magazines "New World", "Banner", in the almanac "Literary Moscow", as well as in Goslitizdat. However, the publication of the work was postponed under pious excuses. In 1956, Pasternak's novel ended up in Italy and was soon published there. This was followed by its publication in Holland and several other countries. In 1958, the author of the novel "Doctor Ji-wago" was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.

The situation in which Pasternak found himself was, in his words, "tragically difficult." He was forced to refuse the Nobel Prize. On October 31, 1958, Pasternak sent a letter to Khrushchev, in which he spoke of his ties with Russia, stressing the impossibility of staying outside the country. On November 2, the writer's note was published in Pravda. There was also a TASS statement. It stated that “if BL Pasternak wants to leave the Soviet Union altogether, the social system and whose people he slandered in his anti-Soviet essay Doctor Zhivago, then the official bodies will not pose any obstacles to him in this. He will be given the opportunity to travel outside the Soviet Union and personally experience all the "delights of the capitalist paradise." By this time, the novel had already been published abroad in 18 languages. Pasternak preferred to stay in the country and not leave its borders, even for a short time. A year and a half later, in May 1960, he died of lung cancer. Thus, the "Pasternak case" showed the limits of de-Stalinization. The intelligentsia was required to adapt to the existing order and serve them. Those who could not "rebuild" were eventually forced to leave the country. This fate was not spared on the side of the future Nobel laureate poet I. Brodsky, who began writing poetry in 1958, but soon fell out of favor for his independent views on art and emigrated.

Despite the strict framework in which the authors were allowed to create, in the early 60s. Several outstanding works were published in the country, which even then caused an ambiguous assessment. Among them is the story of A. I. Solzhenitsyn "One day of Ivan Denisovich". The work was conceived by the author in the winter of 1950/1951 while he was at general works in the Ekibastuz Special Camp. The decision to publish a story about the life of prisoners was made at a meeting of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU in October 1962 under personal pressure from Khrushchev. At the end of the same year, it was published in Novy Mir, and then in the publishing house Sovetsky Pisatel and in Roman Gazeta. Ten years later, all these publications will be destroyed in libraries under secret instructions. Readers of Solzhenitsyn's work were divided into 2 opposite camps. Some expressed "heartfelt thanks" to him for the truthful story, while others expressed bewilderment about the publication. According to the latter, "Solzhenitsyn's story is an ordinary, mediocre work, something like a literary curiosity." However, even the polarity of the existing assessments of the artistic merits of "Ivan Denisovich" could not diminish the significance of the very fact of the appearance of this work.

At the end of the 50s. in the Soviet Union, the beginnings of a phenomenon emerged that, in a few years, would turn into dissidence. In 1960, the poet A. Ginzburg founded the first "samizdat" magazine called "Syntax", in which he began to publish previously prohibited works by B. Okudzhava, V. Shalamov, B. Akhmadullina, V. Nekrasov. For agitation aimed at undermining the Soviet system, Ginzburg was sentenced to prison.

Khrushchev's "cultural revolution" had, therefore, several facets: from the publication of works of former prisoners and the appointment of the seemingly very liberal EA Furtseva as minister of culture in 1960 to the pogrom speeches of the very first secretary of the Central Committee. Indicative in this respect was the meeting of the leaders of the party and the government with figures of literature and art, which took place on March 8, 1963. During the discussion of issues of artistic skill, Khrushchev allowed himself rude and unprofessional statements, many of which were simply offensive to creative workers. So, characterizing the self-portrait of the artist B. Zhutovsky, the leader of the party and the head of the government directly stated that his work is "an abomination", "horror", "dirty daub", which is "disgusting to look at." The works of the sculptor E. Neizvestny were called "sickening concoctions" by Khrushchev. The authors of the film "Ilyich's Outpost" (M. Khutsiev, G. Shpalikov) were accused of portraying "not fighters and not transformers of the world", but "idlers", "half-decayed types", "parasites", "geeks" and "scum". With his ill-considered statements, Khrushchev only alienated a significant part of society and deprived himself of the credit of confidence that he received at the 20th Party Congress.

In the field of education in the second half of the 50s. The Soviet Union has made significant strides. In December 1958, a law was passed on strengthening the connection between school and life, which concerned the further development of the public education system. Instead of seven-year education, the country introduced compulsory eight-year education. By 1963, this initiative had been implemented everywhere. At the same time, the school received a "polytechnic" profile, which involved combining education with work, so that students had an idea of \u200b\u200bone or more professions. It is generally believed that the latter circumstance did not yield positive results. Schools were not equipped with any modern equipment for training young people in blue-collar occupations, and enterprises, in turn, could not fulfill the "pedagogical load" that had unexpectedly fallen on them. The proposed training system only worsened the general education of schoolchildren, without giving them professional skills.

The absurdity of the measures taken soon became apparent. In this regard, in August 1964, the period of industrial training after the 8th grade was reduced from three to two years. Thus, the school became not 11 years old, but 10 years old. In 1966, the Supreme Soviet adopted an amendment to the 1958 law, stressing that schools can provide vocational training to students only where the necessary conditions are available.

The number of people who received secondary, general, and special education grew in the USSR every year. This was facilitated by a network of day and evening vocational schools in cities and rural areas, where within 1-3 years young people, along with a specialty, acquired basic school education. If on the eve of the war the number of school graduates annually was about 468 thousand people, then in 1951-1955. it exceeded 1 million people, and in 1956-1960. - 1.7 million people.

Student group 2TO-04

Mokina Mikhail

The processes of changes in the socio-political life of the country had a significant impact on cultural life soviet society... The newfound freedom gave impetus to the development of initiative and creative thought.

However, the legacy of the Stalinist regime remained and continued to operate supervision from the side of administrative and party bodies. Khrushchev himself tried to exert a personal influence on the development of culture. They tried to put culture at the service of the administrative-command ideology.

Main trends in literature and art... During the "thaw" period, two main tendencies come into conflict. The first meets the requirements of the method socialist realism ... Within the second - there are works that truthfully reflect the history of Soviet power, touching upon philosophical, aesthetic, socio-psychological, moral and ethical problems, exploring the personality in a specific situation. Comes alive again vanguard .

Relative freedom has sparked creative discussions. Extraordinary editions are born - the almanac "Poetry Day", the magazine "Youth" and many others. Performances, meetings, concerts are becoming very popular.

Becoming national art schools. It has become a tradition to hold mass festivals of song and dance, meetings of masters of arts from the union republics. Decades of literature and art of different nationalities are regularly held in Moscow.

Expanded every year foreign communications of the masters of Soviet art. Violinists D. Oistrakh and L. Kogan, pianist S. Richter, conductors E. Mravinsky and K. Ivanov, the Bolshoi Ballet, the Georgian folk dance ensemble, the Berezka dance group and many others performed brilliantly abroad.

Party organs remained the main guardians of artistic creation. And during the years of the "thaw" they periodically used the old methods of leadership, bans and public harassment were in use. In 1955, the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers adopted a resolution to eliminate excesses in architecture and construction. Architecture was struck off the list of muses and has not recovered from this blow to this day.

Literature. Ideological novels are published within the framework of socialist realism V. Kochetova "Youth is with us", "The Ershov brothers", "Regional committee secretary", I. Shevtsova "Aphid", plays A. Korneichuk and A. Sofronova , poems and poems N. Gribacheva , S. Smirnova .

However, the reading public was particularly interested in “ returned »Works of M. Bulgakov, M. Zoshchenko, S. Yesenin, A. Akhmatova, M. Tsvetaeva, V. Khlebnikov, B. Pasternak, B. Pilnyak.

A deafening success awaited the novel V.D. Dudintseva "Not by bread alone." The author, in fact, put two motives in the center of attention: the regularity of the terrible "Kitezh-grad" and the chance of survival of all dissenting, creative people who want the welfare of their people. At the same time, the novel was subjected to devastating criticism as politically harmful, distorting our reality. Khrushchev also “blessed” the “destruction” of the work in his speech at the III Congress of Writers (1959), although he noticed that he had read the novel “without a pin” (without encouraging him to stay awake).

A new level of life and artistic truth set A.I. Solzhenitsyn the story "One Day in Ivan Denisovich". At the same time, Solzhenitsyn completed the novel In the First Circle, with such a "demanding", according to the author, content that he did not dare to let it even into Samizdat. After "One Day of Ivan Denisovich", the author received a stream of letters. Documentary evidence of former prisoners was included in the generalizing work about the camp life "The Gulag Archipelago", published abroad in 1974, for which the writer was expelled from the USSR.

A.I. Solzhenitsyn

During the years of the "thaw", the truth about russian village ... G. Troepolsky in the cycle "From the notes of an agronomist", V. Ovechkin in "District weekdays" showed poverty, the collapse of life, talked about how collectivization was carried out. A. Tvardovsky in the poem "Beyond the Distance" for the first time speaks of the personality cult of Stalin.

Movie truly remained the most widespread art form. It was estimated that in 1963 alone, about 4 billion spectators attended film shows in the USSR, of which 1.5 billion were in rural areas. However, too few films were released, and they clearly did not meet the demands of the time. In 1959, a decision was made to create various creative associations. An element of competition has appeared in the work of filmmakers. During 1961 alone, more than 100 feature films were produced.

As the fastest growing art form, cinema was one of the first to respond to change. The complex interweaving of heroes' destinies, the human right to make mistakes, asserts the movie "thaw". The criterion of deep partisanship has somewhat dulled. A note of normal humanity and sincerity was heard in the films. It seems that every film was made with the intention to rediscover the world, authenticity and everyday life were valued. The first place comes " intellectual " cinema, where documentaryism coexisted with significant conventions of language.

The films "And Quiet Don" were shown with triumph on the screens of the USSR and the world (in 1963 Soviet films were seen in 100 countries) S. Gerasimova , "The Fate of Man" S. Bondarchuk , "Cranes are Flying" M. Kalatozova , Trilogy "Walking Through the Torment" G. Roshal , "Seryozha" G. Danelia and I. Talankina , "Forty-first", "Ballad of a Soldier" and "Clear Sky" G. Chukhrai , "Nine days of one year" M. Romma .

Theater. Music... In the early 1960s, two-thirds of the theaters' repertoire consisted of performances staged within the framework of socialist realism. Popular plays "Wings", "Over the Dnieper" A. Korneichuk , "Irkutsk History", "City at Dawn" A. Arbuzova , "Everything remains for people" S. Aleshina ... The tradition of chef's concerts has remained. Many theaters went to new buildings, to collective and state farms of the Tselinny Territory, to Siberia.

The studio of young actors was organized by O. Efremov ... The Sovremennik Theater was born on its basis. The play "Two Colors" by playwrights was staged here A. Zaka and I. Kuznetsova ... The theater was the first to break the traditions of socialist realism. The hero died at the end, which painted the performance in tragic tones. With the light hand of O. Efremov and his comrades in Sovremennik, the combination “children of the 20th congress” has entered our life.

In all genres of musical creativity, the main themes were the past war, the strengthening of peace, and national history. Major works were created in the field of symphonic music ( D. Shostakovich, S. Prokofiev, A. Khachaturyan ). Operas appeared D. Kabalevsky "Family of Taras", S. Prokofiev "The Story of a Real Man". The songs of the composers A. Novikov, I. Dunaevsky, V. Soloviev-Sedoy, E. Kolmanovsky, V. Muradeli have become widely known.

The Thaw provided new opportunities for experimentation in musical creativity. Becomes extremely popular jazz music ... The first jazz cafe in the Union "Molodezhnoye" is opened. There was no stage here. They even specially hired Komsomol vigilantes, who were put in the place of the dancers, explained that it was impossible to dance to this music, you had to listen to it. Later, other jazz cafes appeared (Aelita, Blue bird"," Rhythm ", etc.), where poets, artists, writers, cosmonauts - like-minded people, awakened by the" thaw ", gathered.

Musical youth groups diligently imitated their foreign counterparts: wide trousers, thin ties, baty down shirts with a placket, airfield hairstyles. Of course, this was a social and cultural protest. International jazz laureate festival A. Kozlov recalls that the musicians seriously studied ancient Russian culture, Russian folk songs, Orthodoxy, believed that "a Russian person will be the more Russian, the more he knows about other cultures ...". Both the government and the Soviet inhabitants were shocked by the new phenomenon.

For all the inconsistency of the "thaw", this period became the most fateful in Soviet history. Oppositional sentiments were laid here, a reassessment of values \u200b\u200btook place. The greatest merit of this time was that the answer was given to the question: "What could I do alone?" An actor entered the stage and asked: "What could I have done alone?", Then the next one came out, and the next ... And now the whole stage is filled and everyone asks: "What could I do alone?"

"Achievements of the USSR in the development of science and technology in the 50-80s"

Introduction

Breakthrough into space

Culture of the USSR during the Great Patriotic War and the post-war period

Science and culture during the "thaw"

Stagnation culture

Conclusion

Bibliography

postwar science culture thaw stagnation

Introduction

Humanity cannot be thought outside the categories of science and technology. Throughout world history, craft, and then technology, was thought of as a mediating link in the chain between human design and its implementation. Of course, science and technology are called upon to provide and satisfy the endless needs of mankind.

Scientific and technical achievements constitute an element of the cultural stratum of society, being an indicator of its development.

The main purpose of technology is to facilitate and improve the efficiency of human labor, expand its capabilities, release (partial or complete) a person from work in conditions hazardous to health.

Since the first technical revolution in the 8th century, science and technology have gone hand in hand. It was from that time that the world began to change rapidly and achievements in science and technology became a measure of technical progress.

Technology, as an integral part of the productive forces, has always played and plays an important role in the life of people, in the development of society. But at the same time, it does not develop by itself, but under the influence of those social and economic conditions that are characteristic of each historical period, for each socio-economic formation. From the variety of facts, events, phenomena, it is necessary to choose those that reflect the main trends and interrelationships, allow to reveal the main directions of technical progress. This is a difficult and difficult task.

Breakthrough into space

Soviet science and technology have made great strides in space exploration. In 1957, the first space rocket was created. On October 4, 1957, the first artificial Earth satellite in the world was launched into orbit in the Soviet Union. The launch of the first satellite discovered space age in the history of mankind. It clearly demonstrated the high level of scientific and technological development of our country and laid the foundation for the rapid improvement of space technology. Following the first satellite, the second and third satellites with significantly larger masses and an expanded composition of scientific equipment were launched into near-earth orbits.

In January 1959, the Luna-1 spacecraft launched towards the Moon, passing in the immediate vicinity of the Moon's surface and entering a heliocentric orbit. In September of the same year, the Luna-2 spacecraft landed on the lunar surface, and a month later, the Luna-3 interplanetary station transmitted to Earth photographs of the far side of the Moon. On April 12, 1961, mankind learned about the greatest scientific and technical achievement the Soviet people, the unparalleled victory of the human mind. On this day, the Soviet spaceship-satellite with a man on board, having made a triumphant flight around the globe and returning to the land of our Motherland, announced to the world that the age-old dream of mankind has come true.

Culture in the USSR during the Great Patriotic War and the post-war period

Great Patriotic War - one of the brightest and most tragic pages in the history of Russia. To withstand the confrontation with the most powerful of the developed countries of that time, fascist Germany, became possible only at the cost of a huge effort and the greatest sacrifices. Scientists and artists played a significant role in achieving Victory. From the first days of the war, literature became the most important ideological and spiritual weapon in the struggle against the enemy. Many writers went to the front as war correspondents: K. M. Simonov, A. A. Fadeev. Many died: A.P. Gaidar, E.P. Petrov. The Soviet Tatar poet M. Jalil was wounded and died in captivity. The rise of patriotic feelings caused by the war has become a powerful stimulus to creativity.

Lyrics are experiencing a stormy rise. The poems of Konstantin Mikhailovich Simonov (1915-1979) ("Wait for me") had a great response among the front-line soldiers. Vasily Terkin, the hero of the poem by Alexander Trifonovich Tvardovsky (1910-1971), a simple fighter, a cheerleader and a joker, gained immense popularity. Many poems were set to music and became songs (for example, "Zemlyanka" by A. A. Surkov). In prose, works dedicated to the war were created (K. M. Simonov "Days and nights", A. A. Fadeev "Young guard"). Theatrical and concert teams went to the front line.

Cinematographers released documentaries and feature films of military-patriotic themes ("Secretary of the District Committee" directed by I. A. Pyriev, "Invasion" directed by A. M. Room, "Two Soldiers" directed by L. D. Lukov, etc.) ... Historical cinema was presented by the first episode of the film "Ivan the Terrible" (directed by S. M. Eisenstein), released in 1945.

Artists created posters. At the very beginning of the war, a poster of I. M. Toidze, "The Motherland Calls!", Appeared of extraordinary emotional power. They worked a lot in the genre of Kukryniksy's poster (M.V. Kupriyanov, P.N.Krylov, N.A. Sokolov). The traditions of ROSTA Windows, which are now called TASS Windows, are being revived.

The military theme found expression in the easel works of A. A. Deineka "Defense of Sevastopol" (1942), A. A. Plastov "The Fascist flew by" (1942), S. V. Gerasimov "Mother of the Partisan" (1943). ). An event in symphonic music was the premiere of D.D.Shostakovich's heroic Seventh Symphony, which took place in besieged Leningrad... The most important task of the Soviet government after the war in the field of culture was the restoration of the education sector. The losses were enormous: school and university buildings were destroyed, teachers were killed, libraries, museums, etc. were destroyed. Large funds were allocated from the budget for education (more than before the war: 2.3 billion rubles in 1940 and 3, 8 billion rubles in 1946) The whole country got involved in the restoration of school education. A large number of new school buildings were built using the people's construction method. Over time, and rather quickly, it was possible to restore and even surpass the pre-war number of students. The country switched to a system of universal seven-year education, but this was done largely at the expense of a decrease in quality, since the shortage of teachers in the country had to be eliminated by creating short-term courses or training teachers in a shortened program at teacher's institutes. And yet the education system has developed dynamically. In 1946 the All-Union Committee for Higher Education was transformed into the Ministry of Higher Education of the USSR. The corresponding subdivision - the Department of Science and Higher Educational Institutions was created in the Central Committee of the CPSU (b). Additional investments were made in science. In a short time, the material base of scientific institutions was restored. New research institutes were opened, even new Academies of Sciences were created in Kazakhstan, Latvia and Estonia. However, as before, the rude dictatorship of non-professional officials continued to dominate the attitude of the authorities to science. The Great Patriotic War, which became the greatest test for the Soviet people, awakened in people the best qualities... The end of the war was accompanied by optimistic sentiments. The people who defeated fascism and liberated the world from it felt the strength and right to freedom and a dignified life. The weakening of the regime, however, was not part of the plans of the party and state elite. Hence a new round of repression and a deep crisis that gripped Russian culture at the end of the Stalin era. Opportunities for the development of many promising areas of research continued to be closed. In 1938, T. D. Lysenko took the place of the president of VASKhNIL. He was an ardent opponent of genetics, and his position on this issue became decisive in agrobiology. Lysenko's own theoretical constructions, promising a rapid increase in agricultural crop yields in a short time, were not confirmed by experiments, but the country's leadership was on his side. As a result, at the session of the All-Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, held in August 1948, genetics was declared a "bourgeois pseudoscience." This meant a complete cessation of research in this area. The state cynically exploited the work of scientists convicted of allegedly anti-Soviet activities. The pressure of the party-state press for the humanities turned out to be even more destructive. During the post-war decade, achievements in this area are very small. The scientific community was shaken by the campaigns unfolding one after another: the campaign to combat formalism was replaced by the campaign to combat "cosmopolitanism and adulation of the West." Rejection of the achievements of Western culture has become the official position. The main goal of this campaign was to erect an ideological wall between the USSR and the West. Many people of arts and culture, whose work was alien to narrowly patriotic obscurantism, were persecuted. A careless statement, contrary to the implanted dogmas, could cost a person not only work and freedom, but also life. Socialist realism reigned supreme in literature. The leading theme for the writers was the last war, but in the official literature it was revealed at that time rather monotonously. This does not mean, of course, that nothing good has been written. Boris Nikolaevich Polevoy (Kampov) (1908-1981) was a talented writer. In 1946 he created the "Story of a Real Man", which was based on real events: the feat of the Hero of the Soviet Union, pilot A.P. Maresyev, who was wounded, lost his legs, but continued to fly The development of painting and sculpture is still defines socialist realism.

The theme of the Great Patriotic War was reflected in the paintings of Yu. M. Neprintsev "Rest after the battle" ("Vasily Terkin" 1951), AI Laktionov "Letter from the front" (1947). A feature of these paintings is that in each of them the war is represented not by battle scenes, but by everyday scenes.

The artists managed to convey the atmosphere of wartime. A classic of socialist realism was the painting by the Ukrainian artist T. N. Yablonskaya "Bread" (1949). Pictures that gravitated towards narrative in the spirit of the Itinerant traditions were widespread. Widely known in soviet time used the picture FP Reshetnikov "Again two" (1952).

The main task of the architects was to restore what was destroyed by the war. Stalingrad, Kiev, Minsk, Novgorod had to be rebuilt almost anew. In stylistic terms, neoclassicism "Stalin's Empire" continues to dominate. In Moscow, the famous high-rise buildings topped with spiers are being erected, in which the traditions of ancient architecture are intertwined with elements of Old Russian. The most successful building is considered to be the building of the Moscow University on Vorobyovy Gory.

Science and culture during the "thaw"

The exposure of Stalin's personality cult at the XX Congress of the CPSU in 1956 marked the beginning of a new period in the life of our country. Democratic transformations that began after the congress, general liberalization public life were, however, half-hearted. Lacking the political will to finish what he had begun, the initiator of this process, First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, NS Khrushchev, himself eventually became a victim of revenge by the conservative elements of the administrative-command system. Stalinist totalitarianism returned in the guise of Brezhnev's "stagnation". The era of Khrushchev, a brief period of relative freedom, was called the "thaw".

A significant, albeit temporary, weakening of the totalitarian control of the state, the general democratization of the methods of managing culture significantly revived creative process... Previously and most vividly, literature reacted to the change in the situation. The rehabilitation of some cultural figures repressed under Stalin was of great importance. The Soviet reader rediscovered for himself many authors whose names were hushed up in the 30-40s: S. Yesenin, M. Tsvetaeva, A. Akhmatova entered the literature anew.

Mass interest in poetry became a characteristic feature of the era. At this time, a whole galaxy of remarkable young authors appeared, whose work constituted an era in Russian culture: poets of the "sixties" E. A. Yevtushenko, A. A. Voznesensky, B. A. Akhmadulina, R. I. Rozhdestvensky. A huge audience gathered poetry evenings that took place in the auditorium of the Polytechnic Museum. The genre of the author's song has gained wide popularity, in which, as a rule, one person was the author of the text, music and performer. The official culture was wary of the amateur song, publishing a record or performing on radio or television was rare. The works of the bards found wide availability in tape recordings, which were distributed in thousands across the country. The real rulers of the thoughts of the youth of the 60-70s. steel B. Sh. Okuzhdava, A. Galich, V. S. Vysotsky.

In prose, the monotonous splendor of Stalin's socialist realism was replaced by an abundance of new themes and the desire to portray life in all its fullness and complexity.

An important role in the literary life of the 60s. played literary (thick) magazines. In 1955, the first issue of the Yunost magazine was published. Among the magazines, Novy Mir stands out, which with the arrival there as the chief editor of AT Tvardovsky gained particular popularity among readers.

However, it was far from complete freedom of creativity during the years of the "thaw". Relapses of Stalin's methods of dealing with cultural figures occurred periodically. In the criticism, from time to time, accusations of "formalism", "alienation" were heard against many famous writersLibrary: A. A. Voznesensky, D. A. Granin, V. D. Dudintsev. Boris Leonidovich Pasternak (1890-1960) was severely persecuted. In 1955 he finished the main work of his life - the novel Doctor Zhivago, on which the writer worked for 10 years. The plot of the novel was made up of the life of the protagonist - Yuri Zhivago, shown against the background of events in Russian history for more than forty-five years .. Pasternak was accused of anti-nationality, contempt for the “common man”. To top it off, he was expelled from the Writers' Union of the USSR.

In the 50s. arose "samizdat" - the so-called typewritten journals (for example, the journal "Syntax"), in which their works were published by young writers and poets who had no hope of publication in official publications.

The founder of Syntax was the young poet A. Ginzburg. The magazine published works by B. Akhmadulina, B. Okudzhava, E. Ginzburg, V. Shalamov. The emergence of "samizdat" became one of the manifestations of the dissidents movement that was emerging in the circles of the intelligentsia in opposition to the Soviet state.

Renovation processes have also affected the fine arts. Realism is interpreted in a new way by artists. The sixties - the time of the formation of the so-called "severe style" in Soviet painting. In the canvases of D. D. Zhilinsky ("Young Sculptors" 1964), V. E. Popkov ("Builders of the Bratsk Hydroelectric Power Station" 1961), G. M. Korzhnev (triptych "Communists" 1960), reality appears without usual in the 40-50s. varnishing, deliberate festivity and splendor. However, not all innovative trends have found support from the country's leadership.

Sculptors are working on the creation of memorial complexes dedicated to the Great Patriotic War. In the 60s. a monument-ensemble to the heroes was erected Stalingrad battle on the Mamayev Kurgan (1963-1967, sculptor E.V. Vuchetich), a memorial at the Piskarevsky cemetery in St. Petersburg (1960, sculptors V. Isaev, R. Taurit), etc.

The military theme still occupies a significant place in cinema. She found expression in the works of many directors: M.K. Kalatozov (based on V.S.Rozov's play "The Cranes Are Flying" 1957), G.N. Chukhrai "The Ballad of a Soldier" 1959

Serious reforms were carried out in the field of education. In 1958, the law “On strengthening the connection between school and life and on further development system of public education in the USSR ". This law initiated the school reform, which provided for the introduction of compulsory 8-year education (instead of 7-year). "The connection between school and life" was that everyone who wanted to get a complete secondary education (11 grades) and subsequently enter a university had to work for two days a week during the last three years of study. industrial enterprises or in agriculture. Together with the certificate of maturity, school graduates received a certificate of a working specialty. To enter a higher educational institution, at least two years of work experience in production were also required. Subsequently, this system did not justify itself and was canceled, since employment in enterprises reduced the quality of the knowledge obtained, at the same time, the mass of temporary schoolchildren and future students brought the national economy more harm than good. Nevertheless, considerable successes were achieved: in 1958 - 59th academic year the universities of the USSR graduated 3 times more engineers than the USA.

Great successes in the late 50s - early 60s. achieved by Soviet scientists. Physics was at the forefront of the development of science, which became in the minds of people of that era a symbol of scientific and technological progress and the triumph of reason. The work of Soviet physicists gained worldwide fame. Nobel laureates were N.N.Semenov (1956, study of chemical chain reactions), L.D. Landau (1962, theory of liquid helium), N.G.Basov and A.M. Prokhorov (1964, together with I. Towns, works on radio electronics, creation of the first quantum generator - maser). In the USSR, the world's first nuclear power plant was launched (1954), and the world's most powerful proton accelerator, the synchrophasotron, was built (1957).

Stagnation culture

The stagnation that gradually encompassed the social, political and economic life in the USSR after the end of Khrushchev's brief "thaw" also affected culture. Under Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet culture developed largely out of inertia given to it by the previous period. This is not to say that there were no achievements, but most of them are rooted in that short period of relative freedom of creativity, which was the result of the XX Congress. The quantitative indicators were growing, but not many bright and new things were created.

In the 70s, the division of culture into official and "underground", not recognized by the state, is more and more clearly observed. In the Stalinist years, a culture not recognized by the state could not exist, and objectionable figures were simply destroyed. Now that the Soviet people had a great school of fear behind them, such crude methods could be avoided. There was no need to make loud trials and broadcast campaigns, as was the case in the 30s and 40s. It was easy to put pressure on the unwanted by depriving the viewer and reader of access. Most of the talented poets, writers, artists, directors, as a rule, found themselves in the borderline space between the official and unofficial culture. Therefore, a small hint was enough, and publishers stopped accepting manuscripts, performances were removed from the repertoire, films were placed on the shelf. It was possible not to shoot, but to force him to leave abroad and then declare him a traitor. Even prominent, honored artists felt the pressure of the so-called "art councils", deciding what could be necessary and understandable for the Soviet audience, and what not.

Among the writers, whose work did not evoke a negative reaction from the state and whose works were widely published, the greatest readers' interest was enjoyed by Yu. V. Trifonov, author of the stories "Exchange" (1969), "Preliminary results" (1970), "Another life "(1975); VG Rasputin "Money for Maria" (1967), "Live and Remember" (1974), "Farewell to Mother" (1976); V. I. Belov "Habitual Business" (1966); VP Astafiev "Tsar-fish" (1976).

The setting in which the action of Trifonov's works unfolds is a city, and the hero is an ordinary city dweller who in everyday life has to solve complex ethical issues. Rasputin, Belov and Astafiev are usually called village writers. The theme of rural life begins to sound in a new way in the works of the "village people". Their works are psychological, filled with reflections on moral issues.

Among the authors who wrote on military topics, the most popular is still K. M. Simonov, continuing the trilogy "The Living and the Dead", which he began earlier. The second and third parts are published: "Soldiers are not born" (1964) and "The last summer" (1970). A significant contribution to the literature about the war was made by Yu. V. Bondarev ("Hot Snow" 1969), BL Vasiliev (the story "The Dawns Here Are Quiet ..." 1969).

However, not all writers were able to freely publish their works. Much of what was written during the years of "stagnation" was published only in the era of "Perestroika".

The policy of guiding painting was also based on a balance of unmotivated prohibitions and temporary indulgences. So on September 15, 1974 in Moscow, an exhibition of 24 avant-garde artists ("bulldozer exhibition") was destroyed, but already at the end of September, seeing that this event caused a great public outcry, the official authorities allowed to hold another exhibition in which the participation of the same avant-garde. For many years, the dominance of socialist realism in painting led to the degradation of taste and artistic culture mass Soviet spectator, unable to perceive anything more complex than literal copying of reality. Alexander Shilov, a portrait painter who worked in the manner of "photographic realism", gained immense popularity in the late 70s.

Cinema is developing rapidly. A literary classic is being screened. An epoch-making phenomenon in the development of domestic cinema was the monumental painting by Sergei Fedorovich Bondarchuk "War and Peace" (1965-1967). Comedies are filmed. In 1965, the superpopular picture of L. I. Gaidai "Operation Y" appeared on the screens of the country, Gaidaev's characters Shurik, Coward, Goonies, Experienced became popular favorites. The director's works that followed this film enjoyed constant success with the audience ("Prisoner of the Caucasus" 1967, "The Diamond Hand" 1969, "Ivan Vasilyevich Changes His Profession" 1973). E. A. Ryazanov shoots remarkably light, witty comedies. No less popular were films of melodramatic content, the heroes of which were contemporaries, ordinary people who fell into complex vicissitudes of personal, family life (“Autumn Marathon” by G. N. Danelia, “Station for Two” by E. A. Ryazanov, “Moscow Does Not Believe in Tears” by V. V. Menshov - was awarded an Oscar).

The action-packed films "Seventeen Moments of Spring" (directed by T. M. Lioznova), "The Meeting Place cannot be changed" (directed by S. Govorukhin), "White Sun of the Desert" (directed by V. Ya. Motyl), " The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes "(directed by IF Maslennikov). However, not all films made it to the mass distribution. For a long time, many of Tarkovsky's works, for example, his famous "Stalker", remained unknown to a wide audience.

Of particular importance in the culture of the 60-70s was the work of Vasily Makarovich Shukshin (1929-1974), a writer, actor and film director. In his stories, stories, films, the image of a strange "eccentric man" was embodied, whose heightened and even painful perception of the world made it possible for the reader and viewer to take a fresh look at the surrounding reality.

The dramaturgy is marked by the appearance of new works by talented Soviet authors, such as A. V. Vampilov ("Duck Hunt" 1970), V. S. Rozov ("The Situation" 1973), G. I. Gorin (Ofshtein) (" Forget Herostratus "1972," That same Munchausen "), AM Volodin (Lifshits) (" Autumn Marathon "1979).

Pop music played a huge role in the cultural life of Soviet people. Western rock culture gradually seeped out from under the Iron Curtain, influencing Soviet popular music. The appearance of "via" - vocal and instrumental ensembles ("Gems", "Pesnyary", "Time Machine", etc.) became a sign of the times. The whole country knew the names of popular performers Sofia Rotaru, Valery Leontyev, and others. The seventies were the time when a new bright star, Alla Pugacheva, ascended to the firmament of the national stage.

The work of GV Sviridov had a significant influence on the development of classical music (suite "Time - forward!" 1965, musical illustration to the poem by Alexander Pushkin "Snowstorm" 1974). RK Shchedrin became a master of musical compositions in large forms, including ballets, operas, symphonies (ballet Anna Karenina 1972, opera Dead Souls 1977). The synthesis of classical traditions and innovative compositional techniques was distinguished by the creative style of A.G. Schnittke.

Tape recordings have become a kind of musical and poetic "samizdat". The widespread use of tape recorders predetermined the widespread distribution of bard songs (V. Vysotsky, B. Okudzhava, Y. Vizbor), which was seen as an alternative to the official culture. The songs of the Taganka Theater actor V.S.Vysotsky were especially popular.

The most important achievement of the Soviet school was the transition to universal secondary education, completed by 1975. Ninety-six percent of Soviet youth entered life after completing a full course of secondary school or a special educational institution (vocational school, technical school), where they entered after the eighth grade and where, along with education profession, it was provided for the compulsory passage of general education subjects in the amount of complete secondary ten-year education.

The acceleration of scientific and technological progress has led to the complication of school curricula. The study of the foundations of the sciences began to begin not from the fifth, as before, but from the fourth grade. Difficulties that arose in children with the assimilation of the material sometimes led to a decrease in interest in classes and, ultimately, to a deterioration in the level of training. The search for solutions to pressing problems was led by innovative teachers, many of whom managed to achieve brilliant results in educational and educational work (V. A. Sukhomlinsky, V. F. Shatalov, E. I. Ilyin, Sh. A. Amonashvili).

The quantitative indicators in higher education are growing: the number of students and higher educational institutions is increasing. At the beginning of the 70s, a campaign was under way to transform pedagogical institutes in the autonomous republics, territories and regions into universities. By 1985, there were 69 universities in the USSR.

Paradoxically, the introduction of universal secondary education and the expansion of the higher education system also had their drawbacks. The country needed working hands, there was a shortage of skilled manual workers. At the same time, the school focused its graduates on entering universities. As a result, there has been an overproduction of specialists with higher education with a shortage of qualified workers. The consequence of this was the decline in the prestige of higher education - an engineer at an enterprise often received a salary lower than a worker. Many specialists with university diplomas had to work outside their specialty.

The successes of domestic science were concentrated mainly in the field of fundamental research: as before, Soviet physicists and chemists still occupy the leading positions in the world, as before, the Soviet Union holds the lead in the exploration of outer space. The applied fields of science developed poorly: the Soviet Union was far behind the developed countries in the development of computer technology.

Conclusion

So, we examined one of the periods in the history of our homeland. It was not an easy period. It was a period of post-war restoration of the national economy, a period of reforms and transformations, a period of transition from a totalitarian state to a democratic society.

The Great Patriotic War ended, and the Soviet people began peaceful constructive work. The destroyed cities and villages were revived from ruins and ashes. The massive labor heroism of the Soviet people contributed to the restoration of the national economy.

Thus, the prevailing in the USSR by the mid-50s. the industrial society of early socialism entered a period of sustainable development on the created socio-economic and scientific-technical basis. The second post-war 15-year stage is characterized by high rates of economic growth, rapid social development and the emergence of Soviet society at the forefront of the world in the leading fields of science, technology, culture and the social sphere. Socialism in peaceful conditions demonstrates the advantages of the new formation, surpassing capitalism in terms of development rates and closing the gap with the most developed capitalist country - the United States. The USSR achieves strategic parity with the United States, the Russia-West ratio is recent history changes radically.

The Soviet Union comes to the forefront of scientific and technological progress in the course of the third scientific and technological revolution. USSR is the first to use atomic energy for peaceful purposes: in 1954 the first nuclear power plant was built, in 1959 the nuclear icebreaker "Lenin". The world's first heavy rockets for spacewalk are being created. On October 4, 1953, the first artificial Earth satellite was launched. On April 12, 1961, the first earthling, Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin, went into space.

The educational level of the population rose sharply; by 1970 it had reached 9.4 years with a higher intellectual saturation of school programs than in the United States. The number of students has doubled in 10 years (1960-1970). The USSR had the highest percentage of the national income in the world allocated to education and science.

Scientific and technological progress, the development of education and science in many areas were ahead of the United States. Achievements in social sphere had no analogues in the world: the lowest retirement age - 55 years for women and 60 years for men; free education and medical care; low rent and free housing with a sharply increased housing construction; low transport and postage costs; stable low prices for food, etc. The Soviet people forgot what unemployment, homelessness, illiteracy were and looked confidently into the future. The USSR has become an attractive example for working people around the world.

From all of the above, we can conclude that the world achievements of our country made us look at us completely differently, with great respect and awe. But the achievements were used not only as "proof" to the whole world about the might of the USSR, but as an increase in world scientific experience. Thanks to Soviet scientific workers and their cooperation with other countries, the development of world science was accelerated.

I think the USSR had a strong influence on the development of mankind, providing a more complete accounting social factors, superfluous from a purely commercial point of view, but necessary for the development of mankind, and in general, ensuring the effectiveness of developed countries as a whole

Bibliography

1. History of the USSR. / Edited by V.P. Ostrovsky - M .: Prosvet, 1990.

Beria: the end of a career. - M., 1991

History of the Soviet Union. vol. 2. - M., 1990.

Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgieva N.G., Sivokhina T.A. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day. Textbook. - M., 1999.

Light and Shadows of the “Great Decade”: NS Khrushchev and his time. - L., 1989.

Chernyshevsky N.G. Prologue. M .: Sov. Russia, 1988.S. 251.

Great Soviet Encyclopedia. M., 1977.T. 24-II

The processes of changes in the socio-political life of the country had a significant impact on the cultural life of Soviet society. The newfound freedom gave impetus to the development of initiative and creative thought.

However, the legacy of the Stalinist regime remained and continued to operate supervision from the side of administrative and party bodies. Khrushchev himself tried to exert a personal influence on the development of culture. They tried to put culture at the service of the administrative-command ideology.

The results of the thaw were especially striking in literature and art. The works of rehabilitated writers began to be published again. The revitalization of cultural life was facilitated by the appearance of a large amount of new literature.

The magazine "New World", published under the editorship of A.T. Tvardovsky. The magazine "Youth", headed by V.P. Kataev, and later B.N. Polev, provided an opportunity for young authors to publish their works. The magazine "October" (prose writer and publicist VA Kochetov) published authors who did not approve of anti-Stalinist sentiments.

Young talented authors who were not afraid to tell the truth appeared in literature, cinema, fine arts.

Poets R. Rozhdestvensky, A. Voznesensky E. Evtushenko, B. Okudzhava, B. Akhmadulina, film directors A. Tarkovsky, G. Chukhrai, sculptor E. Unknown received recognition and world fame.

A significant event was the publication in the magazine "New World" of D. Dudintsev's work "Not by Bread Alone" and A. Solzhenitsyn's story "One Day in Ivan Denisovich" dedicated to the theme of Stalinist repressions.

From the second half of the 60s. the international ties of Soviet science and culture began to expand. Scientists got the opportunity to participate in international conferences.

Soviet creative teams began to make tours around the world. Under the Council of Ministers, the State Committee for Cultural Relations with Foreign Countries was established. The USSR joined UNESCO. In 1958 was organized international competition performers to them. Tchaikovsky. The work of the Moscow Film Festival has been resumed.

Science developed successfully in the Khrushchev decade. Huge funds were allocated for research and construction of scientific centers. An example of this is the formation of the largest scientific center - the Siberian branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Achievements in fundamental research in various fields of science have become generally recognized in the world.

Achievements in space exploration have been particularly successful. On October 4, 1957, the USSR launched the first artificial Earth satellite. On April 12, 1961, the first man flew into space - Yu.A. Gagarin.

However, the contradictions in the conduct of cultural policy increasingly led to conflicts with cultural figures. Khrushchev and his advisers from among the cultural figures held conservative and protective positions.

A dramatic event in the country's cultural life was the persecution of the poet and prose writer B.L. Pasternak for the publication of the novel Doctor Zhivago. Abroad, he was expelled from the Writers' Union. V. Grossman, whose novel "Life and Fate" was arrested by the KGB, was also subjected to severe criticism.

At the exhibition in the Manege, Khrushchev personally gave a blow to the avant-garde artists. He showed incompetence and inconsistency in matters of ideology and culture.

Ideological diktat has survived in many areas of spiritual life. This is especially evident in historical science. Even timid attempts to revise some problems in the history of the CPSU provoked fierce condemnation and the beginning of a struggle against "bourgeois ideology."

During the Khrushchev thaw, a movement of dissidents began, which laid the foundation for an informal culture in society.