Directions of the internal policy of European states. The main directions of the policy of the European Union. Confrontation in the Balkans

The main efforts of Russian diplomacy were aimed at finding allies in Europe, a way out of isolation and the collapse of the anti-Russian bloc, which included France, England and Austria. The situation then prevailing in Europe played into the hands of Russia. Former allies in the anti-Russian coalition were torn apart by sharp disagreements, sometimes reaching wars.

The main efforts of Russia were aimed at rapprochement with France. In September 1857, Alexander II met with the French emperor Napoleon III, and in February 1859 an agreement on Franco-Russian cooperation was signed. However, this alliance did not become long and lasting. And when the war between France and Austria began in April 1859, Russia evaded aid to France, thereby seriously undermining Franco-Russian relations. On the other hand, relations between Russia and Austria have improved significantly. With these actions, Gorchakov actually destroyed the anti-Russian alliance and brought Russia out of international isolation.

Polish uprising of 1863-1864 and the attempts of England and France to intervene under the pretext of this uprising in the internal affairs of Russia caused an acute crisis that ended with the rapprochement between Russia and Prussia, which allowed the persecution of the Polish rebels on its territory. Later, Russia took a position of benevolent neutrality towards Prussia during its wars against Austria (1866) and France (1870-1871).

Having enlisted the support of Prussia, Gorchakov launched an attack on the articles of the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 that were unfavorable for Russia. The Black Sea, which were repeatedly violated by other powers. Despite the protests of England, Austria and Turkey, Russia began to create a military fleet on the Black Sea, restore the destroyed and build new military fortifications. Thus, this foreign policy task was also resolved peacefully.

The defeat of France in the war with Prussia and the ensuing unification of Germany changed the balance of power in Europe. A powerful warlike power has emerged on the western borders of Russia. The alliance of Germany with Austria (from 1867 - Austria-Hungary) posed a particular threat. In order to prevent this alliance and at the same time neutralize England, irritated by Russia's successes in Central Asia, Gorchakov organized in 1873 a meeting of the emperors of Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary. According to an agreement signed by the three monarchs, they pledged to provide each other with assistance, including military assistance. But when, 2 years after the signing of the agreement, Germany again set out to attack France, Russia, alarmed by the excessive strengthening of the Germans, opposed a new war. Finally, the "Union of the Three Emperors" collapsed in 1878.

Thus, Alexander II managed to fulfill the main foreign policy task in the main European direction. Russia has achieved the abolition of the most humiliating articles of the Paris Treaty and peacefully restored its former influence. This favorably affected the implementation of reforms and the end of wars in the Caucasus and Central Asia.

Eastern crisis of the 70s. XIX century.

Since 1864, the Porta began to settle in Bulgaria here the Circassians, who were evicted from the Caucasus in order to avoid Russian domination. Accustomed to living at home by robbery and robbery, called bashi-bazouks, began to oppress the Bulgarian peasants, forcing them to work for themselves as serfs. The old hatred between Christians and Muslims flared up with renewed vigor. The peasants took up arms. And so, in order to avenge this uprising, Turkey sent thousands of Circassians and other regular troops to Bulgaria. In Batak alone, out of 7,000 residents, 5,000 were beaten. An investigation by the French envoy found that 20,000 Christians had died within three months. All of Europe was seized with indignation. But this feeling was most pronounced in Russia and in all the Slavic lands. Russian volunteers from all classes of society flocked to the aid of the insurgents; community sympathy was expressed by all kinds of voluntary donations. Serbia was not successful due to the numerical superiority of the Turks.

Russian public attention loudly demanded war. Emperor Alexander II, by his characteristic peacefulness, wanted to avoid it and reach an agreement through diplomatic negotiations. But neither the Constantinople Conference (November 11, 1876) nor the London Protocol led to any results. Turkey refused to comply with even the mildest demands, counting on the support of England. The war became inevitable. On April 12, 1877, Russian troops stationed near Chisinau were ordered to enter Turkey. On the same day, the Caucasian troops, of which Prince Mikhail Nikolaevich was appointed commander-in-chief, entered the borders of Asiatic Turkey. The eastern war of 1877-1878 began, covering the valor of the Russian soldier with such a loud, unfading glory.

On April 12 (24), 1877, Russia declared war on Turkey: after the parade of troops in Chisinau, at a solemn prayer service, Bishop of Chisinau and Khotinsky Pavel (Lebedev) read the Manifesto of Alexander II on declaring war on Turkey.

Only a one-campaign war made it possible for Russia to avoid European intervention. According to reports from a military agent in England, it took 13-14 weeks for London to train an expeditionary army of 50-60 thousand people, and another 8-10 weeks to prepare the Constantinople position. In addition, the army had to be transferred by sea, bypassing Europe. In none of the Russian-Turkish wars the time factor played such a significant role. Turkey pinned its hopes on a successful defense.

The plan of the war against Turkey was drawn up back in October 1876 by General N.N. Obruchev. By March 1877, the project had been corrected by the Emperor himself, the Minister of War, the Commander-in-Chief, Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich the Elder, his assistant to the staff General A.A. In May 1877, Russian troops entered the territory of Romania.

The troops of Romania, which sided with Russia, began to act actively only in August.

In the course of the ensuing hostilities, the Russian army managed, using the passivity of the Turks, to successfully cross the Danube, capture the Shipka Pass and, after a five-month siege, force the best Turkish army of Osman Pasha to surrender in Plevna. The ensuing raid across the Balkans, during which the Russian army defeated the last Turkish units blocking the road to Constantinople, led to the withdrawal of the Ottoman Empire from the war. At the Berlin Congress held in the summer of 1878, the Berlin Treaty was signed, which recorded the return of the southern part of Bessarabia to Russia and the annexation of Kars, Ardahan and Batum. The statehood of Bulgaria was restored (conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1396) as a vassal Principality of Bulgaria; the territories of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania increased, and Turkish Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary.

The Treaty of San Stefano on February 19, 1878, in addition to its direct goal of liberating the Balkan Slavs, brought brilliant results to Russia. The intervention of Europe, which jealously followed Russia's successes, with the Berlin Treaty significantly narrowed the size of the occupied territory, but nevertheless they still remain very significant. Russia acquired the Danube part of Bessarabia and the Turkish regions bordering on Transcaucasia with the fortresses of Kars, Aghdagan and Batum, turned into a free port.

Expansion of the geopolitical space of Russia and the annexation of Central Asia

In the early 60s. the voluntary acceptance of Russian citizenship by the Kazakhs was completed. But their lands were still subject to raids from neighboring states: the Emirate of Bukhara, the Khiva and Kokand khanates. Kazakhs were captured and then sold into slavery. To prevent such actions along the Russian border, systems of fortifications began to be created. However, the raids continued, and the governors-general of the border regions, on their own initiative, made retaliatory campaigns.

These campaigns, or, as they were called, expeditions, caused discontent in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It did not want to aggravate relations with England, which considered Central Asia an area of its influence. But the War Ministry, seeking to restore the authority of the Russian army, shaken after the Crimean War, secretly supported the actions of its military leaders. And Alexander II himself was not averse to expanding his possessions in the east. Central Asia was of not only military but also economic interest for Russia, both as a source of cotton for the textile industry, and as a place for the sale of Russian goods. Therefore, the actions to annex Central Asia found wide support in industrial and merchant circles.

In June 1865, Russian troops under the command of General M.G. Chernyaev, taking advantage of the war between Bukhara and Kokand, captured the largest city of Central Asia, Tashkent, and a number of other cities with almost no losses. This provoked a protest from England, and Alexander II was forced to dismiss Chernyaev for "self-will". But all the conquered lands were annexed to Russia. The Turkestan General Government (Turkestan Territory) was formed here, the head of which was appointed by the tsar General KP Kaufman.

The haughty behavior of the Bukhara emir, who demanded the cleansing of the conquered Kokand territory by Russia and the confiscation of the property of the Russian merchants living in Bukhara, as well as the insult of the Russian mission sent to negotiate in Bukhara, led to a final break. On May 20, 1866, General Romanovsky with a 2,000-strong detachment inflicted the first crushing defeat on the Bukharans. However, small Bukhara detachments continued constant raids and attacks on Russian troops. In 1868 General Kaufman took the famous city of Central Asia Samarkand. According to the peace treaty on June 23, 1868, the Bukhara Khanate was to cede the border territories to Russia and become a vassal of the Russian government, which, in turn, provided him with support during times of troubles and unrest.

Since 1855, the Kyrgyz and Kazakh tribes subordinate to the khanate began to pass into Russian citizenship, unable to endure the arbitrariness and lawlessness of the Kokand governors. This led to armed conflicts between the Khanate and the Russian troops, for example, in 1850 an expedition was undertaken across the Ili River, in order to destroy the fortification Touchubek, which served as a stronghold for the K. gangs, but they managed to capture them only in 1851, and in 1854 On the Almaty river, the Vernoe fortification was built (see) and the entire Trans-Ili region became part of Russia. In order to protect the Kazakhs, Russian subjects, the Orenburg military governor Obruchev built in 1847 the Raim fortification (later the Aral), near the mouth of the Syr Darya, and proposed to occupy the Ak-Mechet. In 1852, at the initiative of the new Orenburg governor, Perovsky, Colonel Blaramberg, with a detachment of 500 people, destroyed the two fortresses of Kumysh-Kurgan and Chim-Kurgan and stormed the Ak-Mosque, but was repulsed. In 1853, Perovsky personally with a detachment of 2,767 people, with 12 guns, moved to Ak-Mechet, where there were 300 Kokand residents with 3 guns, and on July 27 took it by storm; Ak-Mosque was soon renamed Fort-Perovskiy. In the same 1853, the Kokand people twice tried to recapture Ak-Mechet, but on August 24, the military foreman Borodin, with 275 people with 3 guns, scattered 7000 Kokand people at Kum-Suat, and on December 14, Major Shkup, with 550 people and 4 guns, defeated on the left bank of the Syr there were 13,000 Kokands, who had 17 copper tools. After that, a number of fortifications were erected along the lower Syr (Kazalinsk, Karamakchi, since 1861 Dzhulek). In 1860, the West Siberian authorities equipped, under the command of Colonel Zimmerman, a small detachment that destroyed the fortifications of Pishpek and Tokmak. The Kokand people declared a holy war (gazavat) and in October 1860 they concentrated, among 20,000 people, at the fortification Uzun-Agach (56 miles from Verny), where they were defeated by Colonel Kolpakovsky (3 companies, 4 hundreds and 4 guns), who then took and Pishpek renewed by the Kokand people, where this time the Russian garrison was left; at the same time the Russians also occupied the small fortresses Tokmak and Kostek. By arranging a chain of fortifications from the Orenburg side along the lower course of the Syr Darya, and from the western Siberia along the Alatau, the Russian border was gradually closed, but at that time a huge space of about 650 miles remained unoccupied and served as a gateway for the invasion of the Kokands into the Kazakh steppes. In 1864 it was decided that two detachments, one from Orenburg, the other from western Siberia, should go towards each other, the Orenburg one - up the Syr Darya to the city of Turkestan, and the Western Siberian one - along the Kyrgyz ridge. The West Siberian detachment, 2500 people, under the command of Colonel Chernyaev, left Verny, on June 5, 1864 took the Aulie-ata fortress by storm, and the Orenburg detachment, 1200 people, under the command of Colonel Verevkin, moved from Fort-Perovsky to the city of Turkestan, which was taken with the help of trenching works on June 12th. Leaving the garrison in Aulie-ata, Chernyaev, at the head of 1298 people, moved to Chimkent and, pulling in the Orenburg detachment, took it by storm on July 20. This was followed by an assault on Tashkent (114 versts from Chimkent), but it was repulsed. In 1865, from the newly occupied territory, with the annexation of the territory of the former Syrdarya line, the Turkestan region was formed, the military governor of which was Chernyaev. Rumors that the Bukhara emir was going to seize Tashkent prompted Chernyaev to occupy on April 29 the small fortification Niaz-bek, which dominated the waters of Tashkent, and then he, with a detachment of 1951 people, with 12 guns, camped 8 versts from Tashkent, where, under the command of Alim-kul, up to 30,000 Kokands were concentrated, with 50 guns. On May 9, Alim-kul made a sortie, during which he was mortally wounded. His death gave the defense of Tashkent an unfavorable turnaround: the struggle of the parties in the city intensified, and the energy in defending the fortress walls weakened. Chernyaev decided to take advantage of this and after a three-day assault (May 15-17) took Tashkent, losing 25 people killed and 117 wounded; the losses of the Kokand people were very significant. In 1866, Khujand was also occupied. At the same time, Yakub Beg, former ruler Tashkent, flees to Kashgar, which for a time became independent from China.

Cut off from Bukhara, Khudoyar Khan accepted (1868) a trade agreement offered to him by Adjutant General von Kaufman, by virtue of which the Russians in the K. Khanate and the Kokands in Russian possessions acquired the right of free stay and passage, arrangement of caravanserais, maintenance trade agencies (caravan-bashi), duties could be levied in the amount of no more than 2?% of the value of the goods. A commercial agreement with Russia in 1868 actually made Kokand a dependent state on it.

Population dissatisfaction with Khudayar's domestic policy led to an uprising (1873-1876). In 1875, the Kipchak Abdurakhman-Avtobachi (the son of the Muslim-kul, who was executed by Khudoyar) became the head of the dissatisfied Khudoyar, and all the opponents of the Russians and the clergy joined him. Khudoyar fled and his eldest son, Nasr-Eddin, was proclaimed khan. At the same time, a holy war was declared, and numerous bands of Kipchaks invaded the Russian borders and occupied the upper reaches of the Zeravshan and the vicinity of Khojent. Abdurakhman-Avtobachi, having collected up to 10 thousand people, made the center of his operations K. the fortification of Makhram on the left bank of the Syr Darya (44 miles from Khojent), but on August 22, 1875, General Kaufman (with a detachment of 16 companies, 8 hundred and 20 guns ) took this fortress and completely defeated the Kokand people, who lost more than 2 thousand killed; the damage on the Russian side was limited to 5 killed and 8 wounded. On August 29, he occupied Kokand without a shot, Margelan on September 8, on September 22 an agreement was concluded with Nasr-Eddin, by virtue of which he recognized himself as a servant of the Russian tsar, pledged to pay an annual tribute of 500 thousand rubles. and ceded all lands north of Naryn; of the latter, the Namangan department was formed.

But as soon as the Russians left, an uprising broke out in the khanate. Abdurahman-Avtobachi, who escaped to Uzgent, deposed Nasr-Eddin, who had fled to Khojent, and proclaimed the impostor Pulat-bek as khan. Troubles were reflected in the Namangan department as well. Its chief, later famous Skobelev, suppressed the uprising raised in Tyurya-Kurgan Batyr-Tyurei, but the inhabitants of Namangan, taking advantage of his absence, attacked the Russian garrison, for which the returned Skobelev subjected the city to a brutal bombardment.

Then Skobelev, with a detachment of 2,800 people, moved to Andijan, which stormed on January 8, and on January 10, the Andijan men showed obedience. On January 28, 1876, Abdurakhman surrendered to prisoners of war and was exiled to Yekaterinoslavl, and the captured Pulat-bek was hanged in Margelan. Nasr-Eddin returned to his capital, but in view of the difficulty of his position, he decided to win over to his side a party hostile to Russia and fanatical clergy. As a result, Skobelev hastened to occupy Kokand, where he captured 62 guns and huge reserves of military shells (February 8), and on February 19, the Imperial command was issued to annex the entire territory of the khanate and form the Fergana region from it.

In the summer of 1876, Skobelev undertook an expedition to Alai and forced the leader of the Kirghiz, Abdul-bek, to flee to the Kashgar possessions, after which the Kirghiz were finally brought to submission.

The lands of the Kokand Khanate entered the Fergana region of Russian Turkestan.

By the 70s. XIX century. The Russian Empire conquered the two largest states in Central Asia - the Bukhara and Kokand Khanates. Significant territories of these states were annexed. The Khiva Khanate remained the last independent state in Central Asia. On all sides it was surrounded by Russian territories and the territories of the Bukhara Khanate, vassal to Russia.

The conquest of the Khiva Khanate was carried out by the forces of four detachments, which came out at the end of February and the beginning of March 1873 from Tashkent (General Kaufman), Orenburg (General Verevkin), Mangyshlak (Colonel Lomakin) and Krasnovodsk (Colonel Markozov) (2-5 thousand people each). numbering 12-13 thousand people and 56 guns, 4600 horses and 20 thousand camels. The command of all the detachments was entrusted to the Turkestan Governor-General, General Kaufman K.P.

Having set out on February 26 from the Emba post, the Orenburg detachment of General Verevkin through the steppes, covered with deep snow, headed towards Khiva. The hike was extremely difficult: it began in a harsh winter, it ended in a scorching heat in the sands. On the way almost every day there were clashes with the enemy and the Khiva cities of Khojeyli, Mangit and others were taken. On May 14, the vanguard of the Orenburg detachment joined up with the Mangyshlak detachment of Colonel Lomakin. On May 26, the united Orenburg and Mangyshlak detachments approached Khiva from the north, and on May 28, both detachments settled in a position opposite the Shah-Abad gates of Khiva; On May 28, the combined detachments stormed the gate, General Verevkin was wounded in the head during the assault and the command passed to Colonel Saranchov. On May 29, the Turkestan detachment of Adjutant General Kaufman approached Khiva from the southeast and entered Khiva from the south, an armistice was declared and the Khivans surrendered. However, due to the anarchy that prevailed in the city, the northern part of the city did not know about the surrender and did not open the gates, which caused the storming of the northern part of the wall. Mikhail Skobelev with two companies stormed the Shahabat gate, was the first to get inside the fortress and although he was attacked by the enemy, he kept the gate and the shaft behind him. The assault was stopped by order of General K.P. Kaufman, who at that time peacefully entered the city from the opposite side.

The Krasnovodsk detachment of Colonel Markozov, due to lack of water, was forced to return to Krasnovodsk and did not take part in the capture of Khiva.

To protect these lands from the east, in 1867, the Semirechye Cossack army was formed along the border with China. In response to the “holy war” declared by the Bukhara emir, Russian troops captured Samarkand in May 1868 and forced the emir in 1873 to recognize dependence on Russia. In the same year, the Khiva Khan also fell into dependence. The religious circles of the Kokand Khanate called for a "holy war" against the Russians. In 1875, Russian detachments under the command of General M.D.Skobelev defeated the Khan's troops in the course of swift actions. In February 1876, the Kokand Khanate was abolished, and its territory was included in the Fergana region of the Turkestan General Government.

The conquest of Central Asia also took place from the Caspian Sea. In 1869, Russian troops under the command of General N.G. Stoletov landed on its eastern bank and founded the city of Krasnovodsk. Further advance to the east, towards Bukhara, met with stubborn resistance from the Turkmen tribes. The Geok-Tepe oasis became the stronghold of resistance of the numerous Teke tribe. Repeated attempts by Russian troops to capture it failed.

Later, M.D.Skobelev was appointed commander of the Russian troops in the west of Turkmenistan. For an uninterrupted supply of Russian troops, a railway line was laid from Krasnovodsk towards Geok-Tepe. On January 12, 1881, after a fierce battle, Russian troops captured Geok-Tepe, and a week later - Ashgabat.

The conquest of Central Asia by Russia deprived of statehood the peoples who inhabited it. But at the same time, internecine wars ceased, slavery and the slave trade were eliminated, part of the land seized from the feudal lords who fought against the Russian troops was transferred to the peasants. Cotton growing and silkworm growing began to develop rapidly, railway construction, oil, coal and non-ferrous metals production began.

On the annexed lands, the Russian government pursued a flexible policy, avoiding breaking the usual way of life, without interfering with national culture and religious relations.

Far Eastern policy

Until the middle of the XIX century. Russia had no officially recognized borders with its neighbors in the Far East. Russian pioneers continued to settle in these lands, as well as in Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. The expeditions of Admiral G.I. Nevelskoy on the shores of the Tatar Strait and Sakhalin (1850-1855) and Governor-General of Eastern Siberia N.N. Muravyov, who explored the shores of the Amur (1854-1855), had great not only scientific, but also political significance ... For the consolidation, development and protection of lands along the Amur in 1851 the Trans-Baikal army was created, and in 1858 - the Amur Cossack army.

Unleashed at the end of the 50s. The "opium war" against China was not supported by Britain and France by Russia, which caused a favorable response in Beijing. NN Muravyov took advantage of this. He invited the Chinese government to sign an agreement on the establishment of the border between the countries. The presence of settlements of Russian pioneers in the Amur region served as a compelling argument for substantiating Russia's rights to these lands. In May 1858, N. N. Muravyov signed the Aigun Treaty with representatives of the Chinese government, according to which the border with China was established along the Amur River before the confluence of the Ussuri River. The Ussuri region between this river and the Pacific Ocean was declared a joint Russian-Chinese possession. In 1860, a new, Beijing Treaty was signed, according to which the Ussuriysk Territory was declared the possession of Russia. On June 20, 1860, Russian sailors entered the Golden Horn Bay and founded the port of Vladivostok.

Negotiations on the definition of the border between Russia and Japan were difficult. Under an agreement concluded in the Japanese city of Shimoda in 1855, at the height of the Crimean War, the Kuril Islands were recognized as the territory of Russia, and the island of Sakhalin was recognized as joint possession of the two countries. After the signing of the treaty, a significant number of Japanese settlers rushed to Sakhalin. In 1875, to avoid complications with Japan, Russia agreed to sign a new treaty. Sakhalin completely retreated to Russia, and the islands of the Kuril ridge to Japan.

On April 25 (May 7), 1875, in St. Petersburg, Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov from Russia and Enomoto Takeaki from Japan signed an agreement on the exchange of territories (St. Petersburg Treaty).

According to this treatise, the ownership of the Russian Empire in exchange for 18 Kuril Islands (Shumshu, Alaid, Paramushir, Makanrushi, Onekotan, Harimkotan, Ekarma, Shiashkotan, Mussir, Raikoke, Matua, Rastua, the islets of Sredneva and Ushisir, Ketoy, Simusir, Brot islands Cherpoi and Brother Cherpoev, Urup) was completely transferred to Sakhalin Island.

On August 10 (22), 1875, an additional article to the treaty was adopted in Tokyo, regulating the rights of residents remaining in the ceded territories.

The Russian-Japanese treaty of 1875 caused mixed reactions in both countries. Many in Japan condemned him, believing that the Japanese government had traded Sakhalin, which is of great political and economic importance, for a “small ridge of pebbles,” which they saw as the Kuril Islands. Others simply claimed that Japan had exchanged "one part of its territory for another." Similar assessments were heard from the Russian side: many believed that both territories belonged to Russia by right of a discoverer. The 1875 treaty did not become the final act of territorial demarcation between Russia and Japan and failed to prevent further conflicts between the two countries.

By the middle of the XIX century. American entrepreneurs, merchants, and poachers began to infiltrate Russian America - Alaska. It became more and more difficult to protect and maintain this remote territory, the costs far exceeded the income brought by Alaska. American possessions have become a burden to the state.

At the same time, the government of Alexander II sought to eliminate possible contradictions and strengthen the friendly relations that had developed between the United States and Russia. The emperor decided to sell Alaska to the American government for an insignificant amount of $ 7.2 million for a deal of this magnitude.

The sale of Alaska in 1867 showed that the Russian government underestimated the economic and military importance of its holdings in the Pacific. One cannot but take into account the fact that the main opponents of Russia in Europe - England and France - were on the verge of a war with the United States at that time. The sale of Alaska was a demonstration of Russian support for the United States.

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Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine

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Topic: "The main directions of the policy of the European Union"

Discipline: "Quality assurance in education and the Bologna process"

INTRODUCTION

In accordance with the Maastricht Treaty on the European Union, which entered into force on November 1, 1993, politically, the union was divided into three pillars: the European Community, which is a supranational element and two intergovernmental elements (common foreign and security policy and general policy in the field of internal affairs and justice). European Union policy

The powers conferred on the Union fall under one of these components. The more sensitive areas are united primarily by intergovernmental pillars. The union rarely has exclusive control over an area, even at the backbone of the community.

The Union includes twenty-eight states. The enlargement of the European Union is a very important political issue, with discussions on how large it can be expanded. While some see it as the main political instrument for promoting development, others fear the Union's unnecessary expansion.

Some states are outside the European Union, for example the Economic and Monetary Union includes only 17 out of 28 members, and the Schengen Agreement applies to only 21 states. However, most of them are in the process of joining these blocks. A number of non-union countries participate in a number of EU activities, such as the Eurozone, Schengen, single market or defense. Some countries have a high degree of integration, but they do not have representation in the EU authorities.

1. SOCIAL POLICY

V social sphere EU policy must fulfill three important tasks:

1) harmonization of national policies;

2) encouraging convergence and cross-country cooperation;

3) dissemination of innovative experience within the Union.

In connection with the transition to the single market, the EU Commission began to make attempts to prevent the negative social consequences of the restructuring of the European economy.

Although the Treaty of Rome fixed the freedom of movement of labor (Articles 48-51) and freedom of enterprise and choice economic activity within the entire community, it took another series of pieces of legislation to flesh out these principles. Now citizens of the European Union can live with their family in any member state of the Union in order to work or look for work there (Directive 68/360 / EC), establish companies or provide services (73/148) and remain in this country after employment to work (70/1251 and 72/194). In addition, workers and their families who change their country of residence and employment within the Union should have the same rights in terms of social security, housing, access to education and vocational training as indigenous people. The coordination of social security legislation was carried out within the framework of Regulations 71/1408 and 72/574.

Some problems still remained unresolved. Frontal workers face taxation problems. There are difficulties in hiring a job in the public sector of another EU country. Therefore, the EU Commission decided to take measures to remove restrictions on recruitment in public institutions, in institutions of health and education systems.

The expansion of social and economic rights within the European Union initially affected only employees and their families. Those who did not belong to the category of the economically active population, for example, students, pensioners, still encountered obstacles when changing their country of residence. There was a livelihood test for prospective migrants. This problem was solved thanks to the Maastricht Treaty, which introduced EU citizenship with corresponding equal rights for all to free movement and choice of residence.

The introduction of EU citizenship is in itself an unprecedented action that will have far-reaching consequences. Citizenship not only provides freedom of movement and choice of residence within the European Union. It also gives the right to vote in elections to government bodies, the right to be elected to the municipal bodies of the host country. Some countries are forced in this regard to make amendments to the constitution. Citizens also have the right to elect to the European Parliament, send petitions there on issues concerning them, and appeal to the Ombudsman. On the territory of third countries, citizens of the European Union are under the diplomatic and consular protection of all the member states of the European Union represented there. European citizenship does not exclude national citizenship, but acts on an equal basis with the latter.

European citizenship presupposes freedom of geographical movement and freedom of choice in the sphere of economic activity. Naturally, the CES is also pursuing a policy to increase labor mobility. In particular, the principles of comparability of professional qualifications were established in such industries as the hotel industry, catering, auto repair, construction, power engineering, agriculture, and the textile industry. Were determined minimum requirements to the level of skills required for a particular professional qualification.

More progress has been made in developing a mechanism for mutual recognition of documents. Mutual recognition of diplomas of doctors, nurses, dentists, surgeons-veterinarians, pharmacists, architects has been introduced. The EU Commission has developed common system recognition of diplomas subject to a minimum of three years of vocational training after high school. In 1985, a resolution was adopted to establish a system of mutual recognition of diplomas higher education... Two programs, ERASMUS (1987) and YES (1988), encourage youth mobility and student exchange.

The European Employment Information Exchange System, Sedoc, was also established (Regulation 68/1612). The EU Commission has also proposed to introduce the transfer of unemployment benefits for the period of looking for a job in another EU country.

In order to establish fair competition in the single market, it was also considered necessary to introduce minimum European health and safety standards for citizens. In solving this, as well as other problems, the EU Commission worked in cooperation with representatives of workers (trade unions) and employers, as well as with representatives of European standards organizations (CEN, Cenelec).

An important aspect of the activities of the EU Commission is the improvement of legislation on a European company (firm). The CES sees this as an important factor in the economic success of any company. In 1970, in particular, a draft regulation on the status of a European limited liability company was prepared. In 1980, the Wredeing directive was issued regarding employee consultation and information dissemination in large companies, especially MNCs. But as a result of resistance from entrepreneurs, this directive was frozen.

2. REGIONAL POLICY

The European Union as a whole has a fairly rich economic potential and, at the same time, the uneven nature of development and significant socio-economic differences among its members.

Politics regional development The EU is based on the principle of solidarity between richer regions and poorer ones (political principle), as well as the development of production volumes in poorer countries to maintain the overall potential of the European Union (economic principle).

Therefore, it is so important to invest in modern infrastructure, innovation, quality education and training in weak regions. Indeed, thanks to this, new markets are opening up and the economic potential of all states of the Union is increasing.

The European Regional Policy aims to identify and develop opportunities from existing problems... This requires effective and efficient institutions, close cooperation between governments, business and society at every stage.

For example, within the framework of regional development, the modernization and development of the transport network is being carried out, which will allow to have effective and safe access to all regions, make them more competitive in export-import.

Environmental programs are of no small importance. Innovative technologies in this area affect the growth of economies, not to mention the preservation natural resources and ecology.

The principles of regional development were not created by chance - for many years they were tested and improved, various strategies were developed to deal with economic, social and environmental problems. In addition, success also depends on partnerships within the European Union, planning and good governance.

Regional policy requires a strategic long-term vision of the goals to be pursued. The allocation and attraction of resources should be objective, transparent and non-political. In addition, it is necessary to monitor and evaluate all actions taken.

Initially, there was no common European vision of the problems of the regions; funding for various projects was carried out at the national level. Over time, however, it has become clear that strategies need to be integrated to develop weak regions and combat the environmental impact of economic growth.

As a result, regional policy had to be refined to ensure that access to opportunities was equitable for all.

Today, the regional policy of Europe is developing in three directions:

1) Promotion of economic rapprochement between lagging and developed countries;

2) Improving regional competitiveness and employment;

3) Promoting cooperation between countries to reduce the economic importance of national borders.

During the development of the European Union, three main sources of funding have been created:

1) Fund for European Regional Development, specializing in initiatives related to economic growth, employment and competitiveness;

2) the Rapprochement Fund (transport and environmental infrastructure, including renewable energy sources);

3) European Social Fund (investment in human capital in the field of education and training).

Regional policy is aimed at creating and developing the competitive advantages of the EU states in relation to the rest of the world.

According to the agreement under the Lisbon Strategy 2000, economic growth and job creation are the highest priorities of EU policy. This strategy aims to make the EU the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world.

Regional policy, in addition to helping regions achieve Union averages, has now become more future-oriented, mobilizing underutilized potential rather than compensating for past problems.

Within the framework of this goal, climatic problems are being solved, ways are being sought to achieve the necessary balance between social, economic and environmental priorities.

Also, strategic programs for the regions are constantly being reviewed and adjusted to better meet today's challenges. Regional and local skills and resources are being used intensively.

The next goal of regional policy is convergence. First of all, the EU is looking for new opportunities for rapprochement through cooperation between EU states at all levels.

The integration of new member states is also a regional development goal. Thus, candidates for EU membership receive preparatory assistance depending on their own economic situation, support for reforming the administrative system, financing the development of effective programs and going through all financial and technical stages before being approved.

European Regional Policy provides meaningful investment in economic recovery. A stable, secure and targeted source of financing has been created, which is used to stimulate the recovery of the economic situation in the country.

Thanks to flexible and innovative forms of financing, support is provided to small and medium-sized businesses.

3. ENERGY POLICY

Energy issues were one of the key factors in the creation of the European Union. Germany, France, Italy and the Benelux countries first agreed to create the ECSC, and in 1957 Euratom and the European Economic Community emerged. However, despite the significant importance of energy issues, they did not become a separate pillar of the EU in the future. These issues were not addressed in separate document systems. Energy policy was considered the prerogative of nation states and there was no single energy strategy in the EU. This state of affairs has begun to change only recently.

The energy policy is of decisive nature, since it is through it that the prerequisites necessary for the existence of any industrial production are created. V last years, as the integration processes intensify, within the European Union there is a noticeable intensification of efforts to develop and implement a single energy policy, a frame within the EU, and in relation to countries outside this union, and international organizations.

Energy policy, like all other EU actions, is measured by the contribution it makes to the achievement of the main objectives of the Maastricht Treaty - creating a single market, maintaining sustainable and stable energy growth, creating new jobs and prospering citizens.

In this regard, the most important for the energy sector is to achieve the following goals:

Overall competitiveness;

Approximation of the legislation of the Member States in order to ensure the functioning of the internal market;

Development of trans-European energy infrastructures;

Reducing the Community's dependence on energy imports;

Geographic diversification of foreign supplies, ensuring their security and stability;

Introduction of energy-saving technologies and reduction of the energy intensity of industrial production;

Development of alternative energy.

Considering the legal framework and objectives of the EU energy policy, the conceptual provisions and objectives of the energy policy, prepared in the form of reports “Green Book” - the initial policy plan proposed for discussion, should be mentioned. Since 1999, following the enactment of the Amsterdam Treaty, energy policy has been seen as a factor in the sustainable development of the community.

The Energy Charter plays an important role. The Energy Charter Treaty was signed in December 1994 and entered into force in April 1998. To date, 51 countries in Europe and Asia have signed the Treaty. The Treaty is a multilateral, legally binding instrument for intergovernmental energy cooperation. When it was created, it was supposed to develop universal rules for energy trading. Energy charter conferences are held regularly.

All governing bodies of the EU are involved in the development and adoption of decisions in energy policy, but the main role is played by the European Commission, one of whose members is directly responsible for the development of a common EU energy policy. The Directorate General for Energy and Transport deals with operational issues.

The modern structure of energy supply sets priorities in the legal regulation of this area. Electricity supply, gas and oil supplies form the backbone of the energy market for the EU countries today, overshadowing all other infrastructures, including the coal market. An analysis of the EU energy legislation allows us to single out several basic principles of the EU energy policy:

1) The principle of non-discrimination, which follows from the general principle of non-discrimination and for the energy sector, means, first of all, non-discrimination of conditions in contracts on energy supply, ensuring “third party access”;

2) The principle of transparency, which ensures “transparency” of the situation on the internal energy market, the possibility of obtaining information by consumers on the level of prices for energy carriers, as well as observing by the Community of the supply and transit of energy resources;

3) The principle of non-harm to the environment, reflecting the need for measures to protect environment when carrying out energy supply activities;

4) The principle of taking into account the social factor in energy policy, requiring attention to the dependence of the unemployment rate in the energy sector on market conditions, ensuring the safety of workers in the energy sector.

To date, the EU has developed a significant number of regulations governing specific issues in the field of energy within the European Union and in international relations. In the field of economic instruments of energy policy, the main role is played by regulatory measures, which are legally binding for all member countries, both in terms of objectives and means of implementation; directives that are binding on the EU countries in terms of achieving the set goals, but not binding on the means of implementation. In addition, legally binding country-specific decisions are being developed, as well as non-legally binding recommendations. There are trade and technical standards, import quotas, a price management system, subsidies and investment loans.

An important stage in the development of the energy dialogue is the formation of a single energy market. Since July 1, 2004, the EU directive 2003 \ 55 \ EC (second gas directive), adopted on June 26, 2003, has become the main EU regulation governing the functioning of the European gas market, which replaces the First EU Directive \ 30 \ EC of June 22, 1998 of the year.

Since July 2004, all industrial buyers have been empowered to choose their gas suppliers. And since July 2007, the markets have become completely open to all consumers, without exception. The opening of the national gas markets of the EU expands the legal possibilities of gas producers for direct access to the European consumer, bypassing intermediaries and resellers. The requirements of the second gas directive have become part of the national legislation of the member states. The aim of the directive is to accelerate the creation of a single EU gas market based on the integration of the national gas markets of the EU member states.

In March 2006, the Green Paper was published, which was intended to form the basis of a single EU energy policy. It proclaims the basic principles further development European energy. First of all, they emphasized the stability of energy supply to the EU, one of the world's main net importers of energy resources. The EU's dependence on energy imports is growing, energy prices are rising, and huge investments are needed to upgrade infrastructure. In addition, the EU is concerned about climate change. The work is carried out in 6 priority areas:

1) Formation of a single internal energy market;

2) Security of supply;

3) Sustainable efficient diversified energy structure;

4) Climate change;

5) Development of new technologies;

6) Formation of a unified foreign policy in the energy sector.

4. AGRICULTURAL POLICIES

The creation of a Common Agricultural Policy was proposed by the European Commission. The proposal followed the signing of the Treaty of Rome in 1957, which created the Common Market. The six member countries individually strongly defended their agricultural sectors, especially in terms of what they produced, by supporting commodity prices depending on how farming was organized. Such interventions presented obstacles to free trade in goods, since the rules were different in countries, later free trade became incompatible with intervention policies. Some member countries, especially France, and all professional farming organizations wanted to maintain strong government interventions in agriculture. However, they could be preserved only in the case of harmonization of the policy of transferring it to the supranational level of the European Communities.

By 1962, three main principles of the CAP had been established: market integrity, preference for community products, and financial solidarity. Since then, the CAP has been the centerpiece of the European institutional framework. The CAP is often interpreted as the result of a political compromise between France and Germany: German industry will gain access to French markets, and in turn, Germany will help pay French farmers. Germany is still the largest contributor to the EU budget, however, France is also a budget donor, and agricultural countries such as Spain, Greece and Portugal are the largest recipients. Traditional rules apply to newly acceded countries as well, which limits the subsidies they receive.

The original goals were fixed by Article 39 of the Treaty of Rome (1957):

1) Increase productivity by promoting progress and ensuring the optimum use of factors of production, mainly labor;

2) Guarantee of fair living standards for the rural population;

3) Market stabilization;

4) Secure access to supplies;

5) Providing consumers with food at affordable prices.

EU recognized the need to take into account the social structure Agriculture and both structural and natural differences between different agricultural regions and act according to degree adjustments.

The CAP is an integrated system of measures that works by maintaining the price level of goods within the EU and subsidizing production.

Import taxation applies to certain goods imported into the EU. They are set at the level necessary to raise the world price to the EU target level. The target price is set as the maximum desired price for these goods within the EU.

Import quotas are used as a means of limiting the amount of products imported into the EU. Some member states have contractual quotas that allow them to sell certain goods within the EU without tariffs. This is mainly applicable to those countries that have had a trade relationship with that member country.

If the domestic market price falls below the intervention level, the EU buys up goods to raise the price to the intervention level. Intervention prices are set lower than target prices.

Direct Farmer Subsidies were conceived as encouraging farmers to choose the crops that are subsidized and to maintain the “internally grown” supply. Subsidies were mainly paid on the land on which a particular crop was grown, rather than on the total number of crops produced. The 2005 reform introduced special subsidies in favor of flat payments based only on the area of cultivated land and for the introduction of environmentally friendly farming practices. The reform aims to provide more freedom for farmers to choose the crop for which there is greater demand and to reduce the economic incentives for overproduction.

Production quotas and land non-use payments were introduced as an attempt to prevent the overproduction of certain types of products (such as milk, cereals and wine), which attracted subsidies at prices above market prices. The need to store and dispose of surplus production was a waste of resources and led to a decline in the reputation of the UCP. The secondary market has evolved, especially for the sale of milk quotas, while farmers have made the imaginary use of “land use payments”, for example by leaving unused land that is difficult to cultivate. Currently, payments for non-use of land are suspended, remaining the subject of further decisions on their future, which leads to higher prices for some goods and an increase in interest in growing biofuels.

5. TRANSPORTATION POLICY

Transport is an essential building block of the European Community's economy. The total costs associated with the transport sector amount to about 1 billion euros annually (i.e. more than 10% of the GDP of the EU countries). At the same time, the development of the EU transport system is faced with a number of serious problems that significantly reduce its efficiency. First of all, it is necessary to refer to them:

Transport congestion of certain territories and directions, first of all - highways, some sections of the railway network, city roads, airports, etc., causing significant economic losses and a decrease in the quality of life of the population, as well as a simultaneous deterioration of transport provision in a number of peripheral territories;

Transport accidents;

Harmful impact on the environment, public health, climate;

Significant consumption of non-renewable resources.

The problem of transport congestion in individual territories and directions first appeared in Europe in the early 90s of the last century.

It should be noted that an increase in congestion and a corresponding increase in traffic congestion is the main reason for a decrease in the efficiency of the functioning of the pan-European transport system, its economic competitiveness, an increase in the number and severity of road accidents.

Congestion of transport communications and transport hubs in the EU is associated with three key factors:

1) imbalance in the development of various types of transport;

2) lack of proper interaction between different kinds transport;

A separate serious problem is financing the development and improvement of the EU transport infrastructure in the context of limited funds from national budgets and the Community budget.

Transport policy is one of the most important components of EU policies.

In order to reduce the congestion of the transport infrastructure and the associated negative socio-economic consequences, as well as to increase the overall efficiency and competitiveness of the transport sector, the European Transport Policy provides for the solution of the following main tasks:

Changing the ratio between different modes of transport;

Development of interaction between different types of transport;

Elimination of natural obstacles that negatively affect the development of transportation through the development of the main transport network and improvement of traffic management on it;

Financing the development of transport infrastructure;

Implementation of a set of measures to improve transport safety;

Creation of effective mechanisms for paying for the use of transport infrastructure, ensuring compensation for the full costs of society;

Improving the functioning of passenger transport;

Improving urban transport systems and increasing the "sustainability" of their functioning;

Taking measures aimed at "mitigating" the possible negative consequences of the EU enlargement;

Enhancing the role of the European Union in shaping the mechanisms of international transport policy.

The European Commission promulgated regulations on the development of EU maritime transport up to 2018. The document notes that 90% of all freight traffic between Europe and other parts of the world falls on maritime transport. In the total volume of foreign trade cargo turnover with third countries, according to the European Institute of Statistics, the share of sea transport in imports is about 87%, in exports - 66%, between EU countries - about 30%. Foreign trade transportation is especially important for Great Britain, Denmark, Greece, Spain and Portugal. Thus, the provision of services by means of maritime transport is a prerequisite for successful competition between the EU member states and the rest of the world.

The EU's shipping policy is characterized by the following development priorities:

Protection of free access to the global freight market, which provides the necessary advantages for the EU, which is dependent on sea trade;

Encouraging fair competition in the world market for transport services in order to guarantee the required level of entrepreneurship in the future;

Strengthening the competitiveness of the fleet of the EU member states, designed to ensure guarantees of its survival;

Improving the conditions of employment and work of seafarers; - improvement of standards for rescue at sea and environmental protection.

6. FOREIGN POLICY, SECURITY AND DEFENSE POLICY

The European Union has its own foreign and security policy, which allows the EU to speak and act as a whole in international affairs. In the international and global world, the 27 EU member states have great influence and power if they act together as the European Union, and not separately.

The impetus for this was the Lisbon Treaty of 2009, which created the post of EU High Representative for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, combined with the post of Vice-President of the European Commission, and created the European diplomatic service - the European External Action Service.

The main goal of the foreign and security policy of the European Union is to maintain peace and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the UN Charter; support international cooperation; developing and strengthening democracy, the rule of law and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.

The EU is one of the main parties in dealing with international issues ranging from global warming to the conflict in the Middle East. The basis of EU foreign and security policy remains the use of diplomacy, which is reinforced as necessary by trade links, aid, security and defense, to resolve conflicts and achieve international understanding.

In terms of economics, trade and finance, the European Union is one of the main forces in the world. The European Union plays an important role in the international arena, and its influence grows as the EU member states take more and more joint foreign policy decisions.

The EU maintains partnership with all key players in the international arena, including new ones, who have their own world views and interests. The EU seeks to ensure that these partnerships are based on mutual interests and benefits, and each side has its own rights and responsibilities. The EU holds regular summits with the US, Japan, Canada, Russia, India and China. EU cooperation with these and other countries spans many areas, including education, environmental protection, security and defense, crime control and human rights.

EU peacekeeping missions are located in some hot spots of the world, for example, in Georgia. The EU mission in Georgia is to monitor the situation and provide humanitarian assistance to people displaced by the armed conflict. In December 2008, the EU deployed a contingent of 1,900 police and judiciary personnel to ensure law and order in Kosovo (EULEX mission in Kosovo).

The EU does not have a regular army. Therefore, within the framework of its common security and defense policy, the EU relies on the forces at its disposal to:

Performing joint disarmament operations;

Performing humanitarian and rescue operations;

Providing advice and assistance in military matters;

Prevention of conflicts and implementation of peacekeeping activities;

Performing missions of combat forces in crisis management, including maintaining peace and stability after conflicts.

All these tasks can contribute to the fight against terrorism, including by providing support to third countries in the fight against terrorism on their territory.

Over the past decade, the EU has embarked on 23 civil and military missions across 3 continents, deployed in response to a variety of crisis situations, ranging from keeping peace in the tsunami-hit province of Aceh to protecting refugees in the Republic of Chad and fighting piracy off the coast of Somalia and Horn of Africa.

With the approval of the Council, the European Union can also carry out rapid response operations using two simultaneous single combat groups of 1,500 personnel.

As with Russia, the EU seeks to strengthen ties with Belarus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine. The EU offers these countries substantial funding and the prospect of concluding free trade agreements if they undertake political and economic reforms to strengthen democracy.

In the wake of the 2011 Arab Spring, the EU revised its European Neighborhood Policy to express solidarity with those who stood for democracy. This policy, designed with the aim of strengthening the relations of the European Union with its neighbors to the east and south, proposes political association, economic integration and increased mobility. The EU provides comprehensive support to international efforts to bring peace to the Middle East. Achieving a two-state solution, as a result of which a Palestinian state will exist side by side with Israel, is the goal of the EU. To help both parties reach an agreement, the EU is working with the UN, the US and Russia within the Quartet.

The EU is playing a similarly active role in spearheading talks with Iran aimed at persuading Iran to end its nuclear program. The EU is also strengthening relations with regional organizations, especially in Asia and Latin America... An "expanded partnership" is balanced by the economic, political, social and cultural dimensions of the relationship.

Thus, the European Union is one of the three main and most developed centers of the modern world, along with the United States of America and Japan.

The European Union is the world's largest trading power; it accounts for almost a quarter of world trade. It is also the largest net importer of agricultural products and raw materials. The European Union also accounts for the bulk of aid to developing countries.

The European Union is also working to promote the ideas of peace outside of its zone of stability. And in this regard, the common foreign policy of the Union countries helps. The EU is, first of all, a tried and tested guarantee of peace and for this reason the value of the Union for people is immeasurable.

The progressive development of the EU does not mean that the Union has no contradictions and difficulties.

Significant problems have arisen and are arising in the process of implementing a unified agricultural policy, unified centralized prices for the main types of agricultural products. The ideologists of the European Union are worried about the decline in the competitiveness of European goods on international markets, the reduction in the EU's share in world trade, the lag behind the United States in computerization, etc. The European Union also faces significant problems in connection with the entry of new members into it. But even now we can say that in the EU, on the basis of economic integration, a system of relations has developed, which makes it possible to consider the European Union as a confederal type of state formation. Further deepening of the integration of Euro-Atlantic countries is planned due to closer rapprochement Western Europe, Russia and North America, where integration processes are also developing.

LIST OF USED SOURCES

1. Avdokushin E.F. International economic relations: [Text] / E.F. Avdokushin - M .: Jurist, 2005 - 342 p.

2. Zagladin N.V. World history: XX century: [Text] / N.V. Zagladin: - M .: "Russian word", 2008 - 485 p.

3. International economic relations / Under the general editorship of P.M. Kononov. M .: Economics, 2007 - 241 p.

4. The main directions of EU policy [Electronic resource] / Access mode: http://xreferat.ru/59/2398-1

5. Main directions of EU policy [Electronic resource] / Access mode: http://www.rodon.org/polit

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Objectives of the European Neighborhood Policy

The main goal of the ENP is to share the benefits of the 2004 EU enlargement with neighboring countries in terms of strengthening stability, security and improving the well-being of all interested countries. The strengthening of stability and good governance in the EU neighboring countries is also mentioned in the European Security Strategy, approved by the European Council in December 2003.

The European Neighborhood Policy does not provide partner countries with the prospect of joining the European Union, but offers a privileged relationship with the EU and contributing to the achievement of goals in various areas of cooperation.

Origin

The historic enlargement of the European Union was for it a big step towards strengthening security and increasing prosperity on the European continent, but it also means changing the external borders of the Union. These circumstances not only opened up new opportunities, but also posed new challenges. The European Neighborhood Policy is a response to this new situation.

Foreign policy tendencies were dictated by the Crimean War, which introduced huge contradictions in the international relations of the Russian Empire. The military confrontation, which actually lasted a century, brought not only a military defeat to Russia, but also a loss of positions in the international political arena.

During the reign of Alexander II, the state was opposed by three powerful empires at that time: the Ottoman, French and British. The Austrian Empire tried to maintain diplomatic neutrality.

European politics of Alexander II

The Russian emperor was faced with the primary task of initiating a revision of the provisions of the Paris Treaty. For this, it was necessary to break through the political blockade and restore dialogue with European states. Alexander II's foreign policy towards Europe was unusually subtle and flexible. Realizing that it would be very difficult to get out of isolation after the Polish uprising, Russian diplomacy, led by the emperor, played on the internal contradictions of the European empires.

Alexander II managed to establish relations with France and Prussia and even maintain neutrality during the war of these states. After the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War, the Russian Empire lost its main enemy in its person, which limited the influence of the Russian crown on Crimean peninsula... A major success in diplomatic relations was achieved thanks to the efforts of Gorchakov: Russia received access to the Black Sea, the waters of which were declared neutral.

In 1873, the rapprochement between Europe and the Russian Empire was consolidated as a result of the creation of the "Union of Three Emperors" - German, Austrian-Hungarian and Russian. The end of European isolation allowed Alexander II to come to grips with the Turkish question, which by 1873 had become unusually acute.

Confrontation in the Balkans

In April 1877, military actions were unleashed between the Russian Empire and Turkey, the reason for which was the infringement of the rights of the Slavic peoples by the Ottoman authorities. In a relatively short time, the Russian army was able to win a number of victories and capture the main military bases of the Turks.

The result of the war was the signing of the San Stefano Peace Agreement, according to which the states of the Balkan Peninsula received political independence from Turkey, and the Russian Empire returned the coast of Crimea, Bessarabia and the Caucasian military fortresses under its crown.

Alaska Sale

Plans for the possible sale of Alaska to the United States came from Alexander II during the Crimean War. Such a bold step was logically justified: the territory was very remote from the center, the supreme power belonged to the governor-general, who, in fact, could uncontrollably carry out his own policy in Alaska.

This situation did not suit the emperor. Ultimately, in the spring of 1867, an agreement was signed in the capital of the United States, according to which Russian empire transfers the land of Alaska into the possession of the state. The cost of the territory was symbolic at that time - $ 7 million.

A brief description of. The economic and monetary elements of the EMU are organically linked and cannot exist separately. A common economic policy is necessary in order to form a single economic space, within which companies and the population would have identical conditions for economic activity... This requires a single monetary policy and a single currency. At the same time, a single currency cannot exist if the inflation rates and interest rates in the countries of the monetary union will differ significantly. This problem is solved by pursuing a common economic course and regulating the main macroeconomic indicators at the EU-wide level. The general scheme of the organization of the EMU is presented in table. 12.1.

Table 12.1

Compiled from: materials of the EcoFin Council and the ECB.

The common economic policy of the EU, with a few exceptions, applies to all EU states, regardless of their membership in the euro area. The Treaty on the European Union states that “the member states regard their economic policies as a matter of common concern and agree on them in the Council,” which approves the draft guidelines for the economic policies of the member states. In order to closely coordinate economic policy and economic convergence of the member states, the Council "oversees the economic development in each of the member states and in the Community ...". If the economic policy of any member state poses a threat to the normal functioning of the Economic and Monetary Union, the Council may accept recommendations in relation to this state and monitor their implementation (Article 103).

The Council of Ministers of Economy and Finance (ECOFIN Council) plays a key role in the formation and implementation of the Common Economic Policy of the EU. Its main working body is the Economic and Financial Committee (EFC), consisting of representatives from each EU country (heads of the finance ministry and the central bank), as well as the Commission and the ECB. The EFC monitors the development of the economic and financial situation in the Member States and the Community as a whole, regularly submits relevant reports to the Council and the Commission. To resolve specific issues concerning only the members of the currency union, an additional body has been created - the Council of the Euro zone (or Eurogroup), which includes the finance ministers of the countries of the currency union. The Council is chaired by a chairman who is elected by the members for a four-year term. The decisions taken by the Eurozone Council are not binding, but usually serve as the basis for the decisions of the EcoFin Council.

Convergence criteria. According to the Maastricht Treaty and the protocols attached to it, in order to switch to the euro, a country must fulfill the convergence criteria, or Maastricht criteria. When, in May 1998, the Council approved the list of 11 countries that became the first members of the monetary union, it selected it based on the results of the Maastricht criteria. All new members of the euro zone went through a similar procedure: Greece, Slovenia, Cyprus, Malta, Slovakia and Estonia. In the spring of 2006, the EU Council and the ECB rejected Lithuania's request to join the euro area, as it exceeded the permissible inflation rate.

It should be emphasized that when joining the EU, a country is obliged to fulfill the Copenhagen, but not the Maastricht criteria. The latter are relevant only when switching to the euro.

Good to remember. Maastricht criteria

1. The inflation rate should not exceed by more than 1.5 percentage points the average of the three countries with smallest growth prices.

2. Interest rates on long-term (ten-year) government securities should not exceed by more than 2 percentage points the corresponding average for the three countries with the lowest price increases.

3. The state budget should have a positive or zero balance. In extreme cases, the deficit should not exceed 3% of GDP.

4. Public debt should not exceed 60% of GDP.

5. Within two years, the currency should be pegged to the euro under the exchange rate mechanism-2 (IOC-2).

6. The country should ensure the independence of the national central bank and bring its status in line with the Statute of the ESCB.

The main purpose of the convergence criteria is to achieve long-term macroeconomic stabilization in the euro area and, on this basis, make possible the normal functioning of the monetary union.

Low inflation is needed to ensure that the single currency enjoys the confidence of investors, and its exchange rate against other major world currencies is stable. In addition, inflation rates in different countries of the euro area should be approximately the same, because the ECB's interest rate is set depending on the average inflation rate for the euro area. As a rule, at high rates of inflation, it rises (in order to tighten credit conditions and reduce the supply of money), and at low rates, it decreases. If a country has price dynamics that differ significantly from the euro area as a whole, the ECB's single rate would contradict the objectives of its macroeconomic regulation.

The level of interest rates (yield) on long-term government bonds usually depends on the size of government debt and investors' assessment of the long-term prospects economic development country. Low interest rates indicate low risk for investors. With high yields on government bonds, investors are tempted to invest in securities that bring high returns with minimal risk. It is clear that the funds spent on this will no longer be invested in the real sector of the economy. Thus, high interest rates on government securities are driving capital out of business and impairing growth prospects.

A positive or zero balance of the state budget indicates that the state is adequately coping with the responsibilities assigned to it, and the socio-economic sphere is in a state of financial equilibrium. The state budget surplus makes it possible to reduce the previously accumulated public debt.

The Maastricht criterion for public debt is closely related to the above criteria for the state budget and long-term interest rates on government bonds. The standard of 60% of GDP was chosen empirically: in the second half of the 1980s, the level of public debt in many EU countries approached this level, and the EU authorities tried to stop the process and reverse it. However, today the European Union has not been able to decide this problem... Large public debt is dangerous because, in order to place new borrowings, the state has to increase their profitability (investors do not trust the heavily indebted borrower and demand higher payments for new loans). And this, as noted, leads to an overflow of funds from the real sector to the financial one. In addition, high interest rates make it more and more difficult to pay off the state debt: new borrowings are already spent not so much on the needs of society (education, health care, etc.), as on the payment of interest on previously taken obligations. This is how the national debt begins to reproduce itself.

To join a monetary union, a country must participate in the exchange rate mechanism-2 (IOC-2) for at least two years. It was created on the basis of the existing in 1979-1999. European Monetary System. Within its framework, the national currencies of the EU countries were pegged to the ECU within the established limits. Now the currencies of the IOC-2 participants are pegged to the euro in the range of ± 15%. The meaning of this criterion is that before the introduction of the euro, a country must demonstrate its ability to maintain a stable exchange rate of the national currency.

The independence of the central bank means that it conducts its policy (sets the refinancing rate, issues banknotes and coins, increases or decreases gold and foreign exchange reserves), guided solely by its main goal. Neither the government nor government bodies cannot influence his policy. For example, the finance ministry cannot force the central bank to issue additional banknotes so that it can cover the state budget deficit.

Under the Maastricht Treaty, the statutes of the national central bank must contain provisions guaranteeing its independence, for example, instructions that state bodies cannot issue instructions to the central bank, approve or annul its decisions, participate in the work of the bank's governing bodies with the right to vote, and etc. Within the framework of the monetary union, the independence of the national Central Bank is needed in order for it to clearly comply with the ECB's orders, even if the national government does not agree with them.

General directions of the EU economic policy are developed and approved by the Council for the medium term - three years. In fact, they represent the EU's economic development program. The document, called the Broad Economic Policy Guidelines, is part of a broader agenda called Integrated Guidelines for Growth and Jobs.

The current general directions of the EU economic policy for 2008-2010. consist of three sections. Section A - directions of macroeconomic development of the entire European Union; section B - directions of macroeconomic development of the member states; Section C - Action by the EU and Member States on the labor market to create jobs. Sections A and B are collectively referred to as the 2008-2010 Main Directions of Economic Policy, and Section C is the Employment Guidelines 2008-10.

The European Commission ensures that the policies pursued by individual countries are in line with the economic development goals of the entire EU. The Commission provides each member country with its recommendations on the necessary structural reforms. On their basis, national governments prepare action plans, which are annually subject to approval by the heads of state and government at the spring session of the European Council. It should be emphasized that the general directions of the EU's economic development apply to all 27 member states, regardless of their participation in the euro area.

The Stability and Growth Pact was adopted at the European Council session in Amsterdam in December 1997 at the initiative of Germany. Its purpose is to force the countries that have already joined the monetary union to comply with the 3% ceiling of the state budget deficit, otherwise the stability of the single currency will be threatened.

If the state budget deficit exceeds 3% of GDP, an excessive deficit procedure may be initiated in relation to the country. After examining the report submitted by the government, the Council decides if there is a violation. If the ceiling is exceeded for a short time (for example, due to a natural disaster), the Council may decide in favor of the country. If, in the opinion of the Council, there is a violation, it sends the country recommendations with an indication of the time frame for their implementation. When the violation is eliminated, the procedure is also terminated. After repeated failure to comply with the instructions of the Council, sanctions may be imposed on the country: suspension of issuing government bonds, termination of issuing loans from the EIB, creating an interest-free deposit of up to 0.5% of national GDP and turning it into a fine. Until now, the matter did not come to fines. The moral pressure that the Council exerts on violators is usually enough to get them on the path to improving public finances.

In the spring of 2005, a session of the European Council approved a reform of the pact. As a result, the rules for determining the excess deficit were relaxed and the time frame for its correction was lengthened. In addition, the list of exceptional circumstances was significantly expanded. These include: the economic downturn, the realization of the Lisbon strategy goals, the implementation of pension reform, significant R&D spending, large public investment, and the cost of “uniting Europe”. If the original pact concerned only the state budget deficit, then its new version took into account the volume and dynamics of the accumulated public debt.

The reason for the reform of the pact was the fact that, as a result of the unification, Germany for a long time had an excess of the deficit. Threatened with sanctions, she, along with another violator - France - launched a campaign to change the pact. Their arguments boiled down to the fact that tight budgetary frameworks prevented governments from stimulating economic growth, restructuring national industries and increasing investment in research.

With the onset of the global economic crisis, the state of the state budgets of the EU countries has deteriorated sharply. Anti-crisis measures required significant government investments, and tax collections were cut due to a decline in production. In 2009, the EU average budget deficit was equal to 6% of GDP, and in four countries - Latvia, Spain, Ireland and the UK - it amounted to 10% or more of GDP. According to Ollie Rehn, European Commissioner in charge of economic and financial affairs, "the global economic crisis has left a deep scar on the public finances of the EU countries." According to estimates, in 2012 the total public debt of the EU countries will grow to 85% of GDP, compared with 61% in 2007. It will be possible to return it to the pre-crisis level no earlier than 2025.

Events and facts. Debt crisis in Greece

Elected in the fall of 2009, the new socialist government of Greece announced that as a result of the machinations of the previous cabinet, the country had accumulated 300 billion euros in debt (of which 53 billion had to be paid in 2010) and was on the verge of default. In 2009, the state budget deficit amounted to 12.7% of GDP.

The news of a possible default led to a depreciation of the euro and an increase in rates on Greek government bonds. On February 11, 2010, the situation was discussed at a meeting of the EcoFin Council. According to the approved schedule, by 2012 Athens pledged to reduce the budget deficit to 3% of GDP. On March 25, at the summit of the European Union in Brussels, the heads of state and government approved a plan to rescue Greece, developed the day before by German Chancellor Angela Merkel and French President Nicolas Sarkozy. The country received 2/3 of the required amount in the form of loans from 15 other participants in the euro area and U3 - from the International Monetary Fund.

The Greek government has developed an economic reform program. It includes tax increases, public sector wage cuts, labor market liberalization, raising the retirement age and large-scale privatization of state property. In response, massive union demonstrations and strikes took place across the country.

In order to prevent a repetition of the Greek situation and stop speculation about the possible collapse of the euro area, it was decided to create a European Stabilization Mechanism. It is a fund of up to 500 billion euros, from which emergency assistance can be provided to EU countries in difficult financial situations. In parallel, the EU authorities have developed a series of measures aimed at strengthening the coordination of economic policies of the member states and tightening budget discipline, including through sanctions.

National programs. According to the Stability and Growth Pact, all EU countries annually submit national programs for the development of public finances to the Commission and the Council. The countries of the euro area are preparing stabilization programs, and the rest of the EU member states are preparing convergence programs, which are submitted by December 1, i.e. one month before the start of the planned year.

The program outlines the government's strategy to maintain a long-term balance between government revenues and spending or, in extreme cases, have a budget deficit of no more than 3% of GDP. The program should be based on a broad analysis of macroeconomic dynamics and contain a detailed rationale for the planned fiscal policy measures. Although the programs are prepared every year, the indicators of the state budget balance, public debt and other important economic indicators are indicated for several years ahead.

These programs are reviewed by the Commission and approved by the Council. If necessary, the Council can advise the country on amendments to the proposed action plan. The Council and the Commission oversee the execution of the programs.