Data processing. Information. Information facilities of various types. Functions performed by human organs when processing information
1.4.3. Before a person be able to respond to the information received, he must first realize it. It is in this that the possibility of error is because the range of functioning of sensory systems is extremely narrow. From the sense organs, information enters the brain, where it is processed, resulting in a conclusion about the nature and value of the received message. Such activity, called the assimilation of information, is a favorable environment for errors. Waiting, experience, attitude, motivation and prompting, all these concepts have a certain impact on assimilation and, possibly, the sources of errors.
1.4.4. After the conclusions are made regarding the content of the received message, the decision-making process begins. Many factors can lead to an erroneous solution, for example: preparation features or past experience; emotions or business considerations; Fatigue, impact of medical preparations, motivation and physical or psychological disorders. For the decision-making should be an action (inaction). This is another, also fraught with the errors, because it (action) can function incorrectly and the error will occur sooner or later. Once the action took place, the feedback mechanism begins to function. The disadvantages of this mechanism can also lead to errors. All this can be submitted to the following scheme.
Control over human errors.
1.4.5. Control over human errors involves the use of two different approaches
· First, it is necessary to minimize the possibility of errors. This is achieved through the preparation of highly qualified personnel; developing appropriate management procedures so that they meet the individual identity features; Creating appropriate checklists, rules, manuals, cards, plans, SOPSS, etc., and reduce the noise level, vibration, limit temperature values \u200b\u200band other stress factors. Preparation programs aimed at improving interaction and communication between individual crew members are also able to reduce the number of errors. (The absolute elimination of the likelihood of human errors is a difficult task, since errors are a normal component of human behavior).
· The second approach to controlling human errors is to minimize the effects of errors through cross-observation and improving the interaction of crew members. Designing equipment that can correct errors (ensuring the execution of a given program by automatic device), and equipment that can control or even complement the actions of a person and improve its performance, also leads to a reduction in the likelihood of errors and contributes to the elimination of their negative consequences.
(Specialist involved in training, which implements planning, training, ensuring and performing flights should have high qualifications. Since it is not possible for each individual individual to develop an appropriate procedure, due to their numerous. The specialist must have the ability to summarize the characteristic features of people behavior, their The reaction to the manifested factors is not a standard situation and, in accordance with this, develop generalizing procedures. Currently, in its most, this work is entrusted with the management team of civil aviation. But the appointment procedure for a guideline does not take into account the ability to designate an analysis and generalization of activities. a person, even within the framework of professional duties. At the same time, to develop a specialist training program, having a purpose to reduce the number of errors made, the task is not simple and requires a thorough analysis of the production activities of each member about Wheeling team, be it the crew of the aircraft or the working shift of the service of the movement or, transportation service.).
You can highlight four main types of information processes: Collection, transfer, processing and accumulation.
Accumulation (storage) information
The following concepts are associated with information accumulation:
Media information - This is a physical environment that directly stores information.
The memory of a person can be called the operational (the concept of "operational" is synonymous with the concept of "fast"). A person quickly reproduces knowledge saved in memory. Internal can be called a person's memory, and the carrier of the information is the brain. External carriers (with respect to person) are all other carriers: papyrus, wood, paper, magnetic disk, flash drive, etc.
Information Storage - This is a specially organized information on external media, which is designed for long-term storage and permanent use (for example, document archives, libraries, files, databases). The unit of information repository is a physical document: profile, magazine, book, disk, etc. Under the organization of the repository it is understood to streamline, structuring, classification of stored documents for the convenience of working with them.
The main properties of the information repository is the amount of information, the reliability of its storage, the access time to it (that is, the speed of searching for the necessary information), information protection.
Definition 1.
On computer memory devices information is called danis , and data warehouse - databases and banks .
Because A person may forget any information, then external carriers are more reliable and you can still store the necessary information on them. It is with the help of external carriers who have the opportunity to transmit their knowledge from generation to generation.
Technical means of implementing the accumulation of information are information carriers: Computer RAM (RAM), Flexible, Optical and Hard Drives, Portable Storage Devices - Flash Drives, etc.
Information transfer
Exchange of information between people It occurs in the process of its transfer, which can occur when conversation, using correspondence using technical means of communication: telephone, radio, television, computer network.
When transmitting information always exists a source and information receiver. The source transmits information, and the receiver receives it. Watching TV or listening to a comrade, you are a receiver of information, telling the learned verse, when writing an essay - a source of information. Each person repeatedly from the source becomes a receiver of information and vice versa.
The information is stored and transmitted as a sequence of signals, characters. From the source to the receiver, the message is transmitted using a certain material environment: when conversing - with sound waves, when corresponding - postal communication, with a telephone conversation - telephone communication systems. In the case of a message with the help of technical means of communication, they are called information channels (information transmission channels). Human feelings organs are biological information channels.
Thus, the transmission of information occurs according to the following scheme:
Picture 1.
In the process of transfer, the information is often distorted or lost, because Information channels have poor quality or interference (noises). An example of a bad quality information channel may be a bad telephone connection.
Information transmission occurs at some speed, which is a message information that is transmitted per unit time. Therefore, the units of measurement of the transmission rate of the BIT / S, byte / s, etc.
Data processing
Information processing scheme:
Figure 2.
When processing information is solved informational taskwhich initially be represented in the traditional form: from a certain set of source data it is necessary to obtain certain results. The transition from the source data to the result is the processing process. An object or subject carrying processing is the processing performer.
Example 1.
Let the student need to solve the mathematical task: in the rectangular triangle the length of two cathets are given, you need to find the hypotenuse. To solve it, the student except the source data you need to know the mathematical rule - the theorem of Pythagora. Applying this theorem, it will receive the desired value. New data is obtained by calculations that are performed above the source data.
The calculation is only one of the information processing options. As a method of processing information, not only mathematical calculations can be used, but also logical reasoning.
The result of the information processing process is not always obtaining any new information. For example, when translating text from English to Russian, information processing is happening, which changes its form, but not content.
For successful information processing, the Contractor must use the processing algorithm, i.e. The sequence of actions that must be performed to achieve the desired result.
Exists two types of information processing:
- processing, which leads to new information, a new content of knowledge (solution of mathematical problems, analysis of the situation, etc.);
- processing that leads to a change in form, but not content (encoding, structuring).
Figure 3.
Coding - Transformation of information into a symbolic form, which is convenient for its accumulation, transmission, processing and collection. At the beginning of the 20th century, telegraph messages were encoded and passed through Morse alphabet. Coding is actively used when working with information using technical means (telegraph, radio, computers, etc.).
Data Structuring - ordering information in the repository, classification, cataloging data.
Another type of information processing is a search in some information repository (mainly on external media: books, schemes, tables, cards) of the necessary data that satisfy certain search conditions (query).
Collection (receipt) of information
Definition 2.
Receiving the information - Collect information from various sources (from data warehouse, monitoring events and phenomena, communication, television, computer network, etc.). Obtaining information is based on the reflection of various properties of processes, objects and environmental phenomena. This process is expressed in perception with the help of senses. To improve the perception of information, there are a variety of individual devices and devices - glasses, binoculars, microscope, stethoscope, various sensors, etc.
Information processing consists in obtaining some "information objects" from other "information objects" by performing some algorithms and is one of the main operations implemented on the information and the main means of increasing its volume and diversity.
At the highest level, you can select numeric and non-sliced \u200b\u200bprocessing. The specified types of processing are invested by various interpretation of the concept of "data". For numerical processing Objects such as variables, vectors, matrices, multidimensional arrays, constants, etc. For non-handling Objects can be files, records, fields, hierarchies, networks, relationships, etc. Another difference is that, with numeric processing, the data content does not matter much, while in case of incalculating processing, we are interested in direct information about objects, and not their totality in general.
From the point of view of implementation, based on modern achievements of computing equipment, the following types of information processing are distinguished:
sequential processingapplied in the traditional Fonnahibian architecture of the computer with one processor;
parallel treatmentused in the presence of multiple processors in the computer;
conveyor treatmentassociated with the use of the same resources in the computer architecture to solve various tasks, and if these tasks are identical, then this is a serial conveyor if the tasks are the same - vector conveyor.
It is customary to include existing computer architectures from the point of view of information processing to one of the following classes.
Architecture with single command and data stream (SISD). This class includes traditional single-processor systems, where there is a central processor that works with the "attribute - value" pairs.
Architectures with single command streams and data (SIMD). A feature of this class is the presence of one (central) controller, which controls a number of identical processors. Depending on the capabilities of the controller and processor elements, the number of processors, the organization of the search and characteristics of the route and leveling networks is distinguished:
Matrix processors used to solve vector and matrix tasks;
Associative processors used to solve non-numeric tasks and using memory in which you can contact directly to the information stored in it;
Processor ensembles used for numerical and non-numeric processing;
Conveyor and vector processors.
Architecture with multiple command stream and solitary data stream (MISD). Conveyor processors can be attributed to this class.
Architecture with multiple command stream and multiple data stream (MIMD). The following configurations can be assigned to this class: multiprocessor systems, multiprocessing systems, computing systems from many machines, computing networks.
The main data processing procedures are presented in the figure.
Creating dataAs a processing operation, it provides for their education as a result of a certain algorithm and further use for transformations at a higher level.
Modification of data It is related to the display of changes in the real object area carried out by incorporating new data and removing unnecessary.
Ensuring the security and integrity of data It is aimed at an adequate display of the real state of the subject area in the information model and ensures the protection of information from unauthorized access (safety) and from failures and damage to technical and software.
Search for informationStored in the computer's memory is carried out as an independent action when performing answers to various requests and as an auxiliary operation when processing information.
Figure - Basic data processing procedures
Decision making support It is the most important action performed when processing information. A wide alternative to the decisions made leads to the need to use a variety of mathematical models.
Depending on the degree of awareness of the status of a managed object, the completeness and accuracy of the models of the object and the control system, interacting with the external environment, the decision-making process proceeds in various conditions:
1) decision making in terms of certainty. In this problem, the model of the object and control system is considered specified, and the effect of the external environment is irrelevant. Therefore, between the selected strategy for the use of resources and the end result, there is a unambiguous connection, whence it follows that in conditions of certainty, it suffices to use a decisive rule to assess the utility of solution options, taking as optimal that leads to the greatest effect. If there are several such strategies, then all of them are equivalent. To search for solutions under definiteness, methods of mathematical programming are used;
2) making decisions under risk. In contrast to the previous case, for decision-making under risk conditions, it is necessary to take into account the influence of the external environment, which is not amenable to exact forecast, and only the probabilistic distribution of its states is known. Under these conditions, the use of the same strategy can lead to different outcomes, the probabilities of which are considered specified or can be determined. The assessment and choice of strategies are carried out using a decisive rule that takes into account the likelihood of achieving the final result;
3) decision making in uncertainty. As in the previous task between the choice of strategy and the end result, there is no unambiguous relationship. In addition, the probabilities of the appearance of end results are also unknown, which can either be determined or do not have in the context of meaningful meaning. Each pair "Strategy - the end result" corresponds to some external evaluation in the form of a win. The most common is the use of the criterion for obtaining the maximum guaranteed winning;
4) decision making in multicitality. In any of the tasks listed above, multi-characterity occurs in the case of several independent, not converted to another target. The presence of a large number of solutions complicates the assessment and selection of the optimal strategy. One of the possible ways to solve is the use of modeling methods.
Creating documents, reports, reports It is to convert the information in forms suitable for reading both a person and a computer. Operations such as processing, reading, scanning and sorting documents are connected with this action.
When processing information, it is processed from one form of submission or existence to another, which is determined by the needs arising from the process of implementing information technologies.
The implementation of all actions performed in the process of information processing is carried out using a variety of software.
"Information perception" - touch. Organoleptic information. Taste's organs carry a person information about the taste of food. Building the surface relief models. The concept of information. Object information. "Geoinformation systems". Taste. The smell of geranium - rumor. Construction of models of the hydrographic network and the definition of sections of floodings.
"Perception and presentation of information" - the form of reporting by a person. Classification of knowledge. Reportability of the message. Perception of information. The meaning of the concept of "information". Natural languages \u200b\u200band formal. Messages. Information and writing. Reportability of messages. Declarative knowledge. Man and information. Information and knowledge.
"Theory of Information" - on the definitions of the concept of information. Metaphoric understanding of information. Terms. Fragment of the exemplary classification. Methodological approach. Information theory. The emergence of "information". Properties of social information. Logic problems of determining the concept. Name of a number of scientific disciplines. On the third problem of Luciano Florida.
"Information and its properties" - matter. Saving systematization in memory. Sampling. Message. E. Talleyran (diplomat, france). Knowledge. Remember! Signals. 3 points of view on information in modern science: What look do you share? Information carriers. Classification of types of information: who owns information - owns the world.
"The concept of information" - all the variety of information around us can be grouped on a different feature. Units of information measurement. The concept of information is the key concept of informatics. Information and information technology. The concept of "information" is a primary and indefinable concept. The most important properties of information: completeness, accuracy, value, relevance and clarity.
"Properties of information" - reliability - the property of information not to have hidden errors. Information (lat. Adequacy - the property of information is unequivocal to meet the displayed object or phenomenon. Uniqueness - the property of information is stored in a single copy. Receipt and transformation of information is a prerequisite for the vital activity of any organism.
Total in the subject of 28 presentations
Data processing -the process of systematic change in the content or form of information presentation.
Information processing is performed in accordance with certain rules of some subject or object (for example, a person or automatic device). We will call him contractor for information processing.
The performer of processing, interacting with the external environment, gets from it input informationwhich is processed. The result of processing is outputtransmitted by the external environment. Thus, the external environment acts as a source of input information and the consumer of the output information.
Information processing occurs according to a certain rules known to the Contractor. Processing rules that are a description of the sequence of individual processing steps are called information processing algorithm.
The processing performer must have an processor in its composition, which is called the processor, and the memory unit in which both the information being processed and the processing rules (algorithm) are stored. All of the above is schematically represented in the figure.
Information processing scheme
Example.A student, solving the task in the lesson, carries out information processing. The external environment for it is the lesson atmosphere. Input information is the condition of the task that the teacher reports leads the lesson. The student remembers the condition of the problem. To facilitate the memorization, it can use records in a notebook - external memory. From the explanation of the teacher, he learned (remembered) a way to solve the problem. The processor is a student's thought apparatus using which to solve the task, it receives the answer - output information.
The scheme shown in the figure is the overall circuit of information processing, independent of who (or that) is the performer of processing: a living organism or technical system. This scheme is implemented by technical means in the computer. Therefore, it can be said that the computer is the technical model of the "live" information processing system. It consists of all the main components of the processing system: processor, memory, input devices, output devices (see " Computer device " 2).
Input information presented in symbolic form (signs, letters, numbers, signals), called input data. As a result of processing, the performer is obtained output. Input and output may be a set of values \u200b\u200b- separate data elements. If the processing consists in mathematical calculations, the input and output data is a set of numbers. In the following drawing X.: {x.1, x.2, …, xn.) Indicates many input data, and Y.: {y.1, y.2, …, ym.) - Many output:
Data processing scheme
Processing consists in converting a set X. In many Y.:
P.(X.) Y.
Here R Indicates the rules of processing that the performer uses. If the performer of information processing is a person, then the rules for the processing on which it acts is not always formal and unambiguous. Man often acts creative, not formally. Even the same mathematical tasks it can solve in different ways. The work of a journalist, a scientist, translator and other specialists is creative work with information that is not fulfilled by the formal rules.
To indicate formalized rules that determine the sequence of information processing steps, the concept of an algorithm is used in the computer science (see " Algorithm" 2). With the concept of an algorithm in mathematics, a well-known method for calculating the greatest general divider (node) of two natural numbers is associated, which is called the Euclidea algorithm. In verbal form, it can be described like this:
1. If two numbers are equal to each other, then for the nodes to take their general value, otherwise go to the execution of paragraph 2.
2. If the numbers are different, then more of them are replaced by the difference in more and smaller among the numbers. Return to the execution of clause 1.
Here input data are two natural numbers - h.1 I. h.2. Result Y. - Their greatest common divisor. Rule ( R) There is an Euclide algorithm:
Algorithm Euclid ( h.1, h.2) Y.
Such a formalized algorithm is easily programmed for a modern computer. The computer is a universal data processing performer. The formalized processing algorithm is presented in the form of a program posted in the computer's memory. For computer processing rules ( R) - This program.
Explaining the topic "Information Processing", examples of processing, both related to obtaining new information and associated with a change in the form of information presentation, should be given.
The first type of treatment: Processing related to obtaining new information, new knowledge content. This type of processing includes solving mathematical problems. The same type of information processing includes a solution of various tasks by applying logical reasoning. For example, the investigator for some evil set finds a criminal; Man, analyzing the current circumstances, decides on its further actions; The scientist solves the mystery of the ancient manuscripts, etc.
Second type of processing: Processing associated with a change in shape, but not changing content. This type of information processing includes, for example, the translation of the text from one language to another: the form changes, but the content should be preserved. An important type of processing for computer science is coding. Coding - this is Converting information to a symbolic form, convenient for its storage, transmission, processing (cm. " Coding”).
Structuring Data can also be attributed to the second type of processing. Structuring is associated with the introduction of a certain order, a certain organization in the information storage. Location of data in alphabetical order, grouping for some features of classification, the use of a table or graph view - all these are examples of structuring.
Special type of information processing is search. The search task is usually formulated as follows: there is some information storage - information array (telephone directory, dictionary, train schedule, etc.), you need to find in it the necessary information satisfying certain search terms (Phone of this organization, translation of this word into English, the departure time of this train). The search algorithm depends on the method of organizing information. If the information is structured, the search is performed faster, it can be optimized (see " Data Search ").
In the propaedeutic course of informatics, the tasks of the black box are popular. The processing performer is considered "black box", i.e. The system, the internal organization and the mechanism of which we do not know. The task is to guess the data processing rule (P), which implements the performer.
Example 1.
The processing performer calculates the average value of the input values: Y. = (X.1 + X.2)/2
Example 2.
At the entrance - the word in Russian, at the exit - the number of vowels.
The most profound development of information processing issues occurs when studying algorithms for working with values \u200b\u200band programming (in the main and high school). The performer processing information in this case is a computer, and all the handling features are laid in the programming language. Programming there is description of input processing rules in order to obtain output.
It should offer students two types of tasks:
Direct task: to make an algorithm (program) to solve the task;
The inverse task: Dan algorithm, requires determining the result of its execution by tracing the algorithm.
When solving the inverse problem, the student puts himself in the position of the artist's processing, step by step performing an algorithm. The results of the execution at each step should be reflected in the trace table.