Free Economic Society of Russia. Free Economic Society: Aims and Institution What is a Free Economic Society
Companions of Catherine
Orlov and Vorontsov could not do without ..., however, academicians also participated in his education. This society, as is already clear, arose during the reign of Catherine the Great (II). The founders were highly respected people of the state. Why did it become necessary to form such an association? The explanation is quite prosaic. Russia at that time lived mainly in villages, of which there were about 100 thousand. As for the peasants, about 60% were in serfdom. Therefore, the establishment of VEO is not an accident.
There are a number of other reasons for the emergence of an economic society. Since Catherine herself did not favor serfdom, she wanted to change the position of the peasants, but she was afraid of losing the support of the nobility, and therefore did not dare to speak out openly with radical changes, this organization was supposed to serve such a mission. By the way, this became the first union in Russia where one could openly gather without fear of being caught in treason or freethinking.
The second main idea was the spread of new, innovative means of farming and peasant farming in general!
A noteworthy fact: the promised reward of 1000 ducats to the one who better resolves the problem, what the peasant needs more: movable or real estate? As always, there were more questions ... and Eksterina herself is not very consistent in this matter ...
The nobles did not support the idea ...
In fact, the hopes associated with this free economic society did not materialize. If we consider the position of the peasantry, it has worsened. See the example below in the picture.
But! There was one ruined nobleman who took up the idea of Catherine, Mr. Polenov, who left an essay "on the serfdom of Russia", the main ideas of which were included in the reform of Alexander II, who abolished serfdom.
Conclusions: choose an option development of agriculture in Russia.
Reviews of the competition in other age groups:
- Reforms of Catherine 2. which led to a deterioration in the life of society?
The society arose on the initiative of progressive representatives of the nobility and scientists who were interested in the successful development of agriculture and industry. The society was called free because it was not subordinate to any government department. This organization existed for almost a century and a half - until 1919 and resumed its activities in 1982.
Many popular publications and reference books today attribute the authorship of the creation this society to the favorite of Empress Catherine II, Count Grigory Orlov. For example, Wikipedia (the free encyclopedia) says that the Society "was founded in St. Petersburg in 1765 by Count Grigory Orlov under the patronage of Catherine II." Actually, not the most talented statesman and the failed spouse of the sovereign empress had nothing to do not only with the authorship of this project, but was not even (contrary to a very widespread opinion) the first president of the VEO. Count Orlov can only be considered a conductor of this useful idea: he put his very weighty signature on the message to Catherine II, drawn up by the initiative group of the nobility, already calling itself the Free Economic Society:
|
Most Merciful, Most Reigning, Great - Wise Empress and Autocrat of All Russia, Most Merciful Empress! The reign of your IMPERIAL MAJESTY is that plan for the fatherland, in which our bliss is apparently accomplished. With Your Majesty's tireless work and care of affairs, the integrity and well-being of the Empire of the constituent, apparently, so much your patronage acts towards the Sciences and Arts; and in this way they are encouraged in the subjects of your heart, the lovers in teaching themselves and in the enlightenment of others. Considering this, we, the all-subject, will unite by voluntary agreement to establish a meeting between us, in which we will set out to work together to improve Agriculture and Household Construction. Our zeal and zeal, no matter how great, but when they are not backed up by the patronage of the Monarchs, then our work will be without implementation. Members of the Free Economic Society |
In many sources, October 31, 1765 is given as the date of the foundation of the VEO. Meanwhile, the Society actually existed even before the approving rescript of the empress, and its true creators were not court nobles, but scientists. It was M.V. Lomonosov. The tasks, methods of work, the charter of the VEO were developed by him in the "Opinion on the establishment of the state collegium of (rural) zemstvo housing construction" (1763). The program of activities of the collegium (and then the Society) included the propaganda and dissemination of "generally useful information and instructions on agriculture, house-building and, in general, in all branches of economy in the Russian Empire." However, under Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, these undertakings did not meet with the proper response. Officials were in no hurry to resolve such issues at the state level. Only after the death of Lomonosov (1765) at
 |
On May 22, 1765, I. Tauberg completed the plan of a patriotic society drawn up by him on behalf of Catherine II "for the promotion of agriculture and economy in Russia." An example of Tauberg was the societies in Scotland, founded in 1723, Ireland (1736), England (1753), France (1757) and Germany (1762), as well as the developments of the projects of M.V. Lomonosov and A. Nartov.
The first Articles of Association of the Society stated: "There is no most convenient means of increasing the national well-being in any state of the people's well-being, how to try to bring the economy to a better state, showing the proper ways how natural crops are used with great benefit and the previous shortcomings can be corrected.".
The purpose of the society was to study the state of Russian agriculture, the conditions of the country's economic life and the dissemination of information useful for agriculture. The Free Economic Society consisted of three branches:
- agricultural;
- agricultural technical production and agricultural mechanics;
- political economy and agricultural statistics.
The VEO was headed by an elected president.
The first (constituent) meeting of the VEO members took place in the former Stegelman's house, where Count G. Orlov lived, but the favorite himself, being busy with other things, did not even attend this event. The post of VEO president was first offered to Count R.I. Vorontsov, then G.G. Orlov, who refused, because "For a variety of occupations, I could not take this title on myself." Adam Vasilievich Olsufiev was elected the first president of the Society. The president was elected for 2/3 years (elected in thirds). G.G. Orlov held this post very short time: from January 1 to September 1, 1766.
During his presidency, Count Orlov only manages to order from the architect Zh.B. Wallen-Delamotte project of a building for VEO at the corner of Nevsky Prospect and Palace Square. The project is being implemented during 1768 - 1775. In 1780 the building was rebuilt. In 1844, the Society was transferred to Zabalkansky (now Moskovsky) Avenue, and the old building was transferred to the General Staff. In 1845-1846, the architect I.D. Chernik built a new building on this site, the facade of which was designed in general forms with the General Staff building. Today the complex of buildings of the Free Economic Society on Moskovsky Prospekt in St. Petersburg is an architectural monument of federal significance.
Over time, the goals and objectives of the VEO were repeatedly specified and expanded in the general economic direction, covering not only agriculture, but also industry. Among the first members of the VEO, as we can see, the names of the close persons of Catherine II, large landowners and landowners predominated, but later the nobles and courtiers moved away from active participation in the work of the Society, giving way to the actively developing scientific and industrial-trade elite. The expansion of the VEO's activities required more and more active involvement of specialists in various fields: natural biologists, historians, ethnographers, travelers, physicians, as well as merchants, industrial and agricultural entrepreneurs.
From its first meetings, the Society placed research at the center of its activities, thereby laying the foundation for the study of the country's economic life. An early VEO document noted: “What is not in Russia — all that is needed is there; it is necessary to use what is proposed in nature, knowledge, study and observation are required ... ".
In 1766, VEO held the first competition on a question sent by Catherine II: "What is the property of the farmer - is it in his land, which he cultivates, or in movable, and what right can he have to both for the benefit of the whole people?" It was a kind of touchstone, with the help of which Catherine wanted to find out the public mood in the question of the abolition of serfdom of interest to her. Of the 160 responses of Russian and foreign authors, the most progressive was the work of the jurist A. Ya. Polenov, who criticized serfdom. The answer displeased the VEO competition committee and was not published. However, the very formulation of the question, and even more so its public discussion, was a truly revolutionary event for that time. The competition, of course, did not have any practical consequences, but the peasant question has since become the subject of open public discussion.
Subsequently, various competitions on political economic, applied agricultural and technical problems were held regularly. Only in the first century of the Society's work, 243 problems were announced, among which the 1796 competition for the compilation of the "People's Encyclopedia" with the aim of popularizing scientific knowledge can be singled out.
From the first days of the VEO's life, practical work began - free distribution of seeds, the introduction of a potato culture, hitherto unknown to Russians. In 1766, the Society raised the issue of spare stores and public smells. Soon, VEO began to manufacture smallpox vaccine for the population - a purely scientific task that required the involvement of specialists not so much in the economic sphere as in the medical sphere. Grigory Orlov and Empress Catherine were among the first to agree to be vaccinated against smallpox.
However, the main direction of VEO activity for almost all the years of its existence has remained economic analytics.
In 1790, the Society developed and published an extensive program of local research entitled: "Inscription for the usual task and rewarding of those works, which economic descriptions of private Russian governorships will be reported to him." In 1801, the VEO obtained the highest order to "compel the governors to answer", and from 1829 it collected the necessary information from the landlords and the clergy. In 1847, the Society collected and published data on the prices of bread, forests and the timber industry, two years later it equipped a special expedition to collect information about the black earth strip, in 1853 it published materials on agricultural statistics.
On the day of its 100th anniversary, VEO organized a congress of Russian farmers, at which the following issue was comprehensively discussed: "What should be the measures for the study of Russia in economic terms, and what participation can both the Free Economic Society and other scientists take in this matter." The next year, together with the Geographical Society, an extensive study of the grain trade and productivity in Russia was undertaken, which resulted in a number of scientific works (Barkovsky, Yanson, Bezobrazova and others).
Since 1870, the VEO began to study the activities of zemstvos and published a special "Zemsky Yearbook", and in 1877 undertook a study of the Russian community, which ended with the publication of a solid collection. In 1889, the Society conducted a study of peasants' arrears on the example of one of the counties of the Russian hinterland; in 1896-1898, a study was conducted of agricultural artels in the Kherson province. At the same time, according to the reports of Chuprov, Posnikov, Annensky, the question of the impact of harvests on different sides economic life, according to the reports of Tugan-Baranovsky and Struve, the issue of the direction economic development Russia.
The financial problems of the country were also in the field of view of the members of the Society. In 1886, the VEO raised the issue of income tax, in 1893 it sharply protested against the introduction of the salt tax, in 1896 it discussed the project monetary reform in Russia, and in 1898 petitioned for a revision of customs tariffs.
Since the 20s of the XIX century, the Society has been actively involved in agricultural education. In 1833, Emperor Nicholas I gave him capital, for which rural teachers had been preparing for a long time. For many years VEO maintained its own agricultural school, beekeeping school, had its own workshop and even a museum. Dealing with problems of soil science, the Society summarized the well-known works of Dokuchaev in the book "Russian Chernozem".
The Society paid much attention to the issues of statistics, developing the methodology and methods of organizing the valuation business. In 1900, a congress of zemstvo statisticians was convened at the special statistical commission of the VEO.
Since 1849, under the auspices of the VEO, numerous exhibitions have been held: herd cattle, dairy farming, agricultural tools and machines, dried fruits and vegetables, etc. In 1850 and 1860, the Society organized exhibitions of "rural works" on an all-Russian scale. At several international and world exhibitions (Paris, 1878, 1889; Prague, 1879; Chicago, 1893 and others), VEO expositions were awarded the highest awards.
V different time among the members of the Society were such outstanding scientists as Beketov, Vernadsky, Lesgaft, Mendeleev, famous travelers - Bellingshausen, Kruzenshtern, Litke, Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, writers - Derzhavin, Stasov, Tolstoy. In 1909, the VEO had more than 500 members, and there were also correspondents in a number of foreign countries. The Society existed at the expense of government subsidies, numerous private donations and membership fees, had a complex of buildings in St. Petersburg, at one time owned a part of Petrovsky Island and an experimental farm on the Okhta River.
All scientific and practical deeds of VEO are reflected in the "Proceedings of the Imperial Free Economic Society" (281 issues), published from its very foundation until 1915. In addition, 9 periodicals were published under the VEO flag at different times: "Economic News", "Circle of Economic Information", "Atlas of the Museum of the Imperial Free Economic Society", "Forest Journal", "Economic Notes", "Russian Beekeeping Leaf" and other.
The Free Economic Society distributed millions of books and brochures across Russia free of charge, including more than 126 publications of its Literacy Committee (1865-95). Four volumes of "Proceedings of Expeditions Equipped by the Imperial Free Economic Society and the Russian Geographical Society for the Study of the Grain Trade and Productivity in Russia" were published. The Society's library contained about 200,000 books, a unique collection of zemstvo publications (over 40,000 books and brochures).
The privileged position of VEO and the rights given to him were confirmed upon their accession to the throne by each of the successors of Catherine II (with the exception of Paul I). In the last highest rescript, given on November 21, 1894, attention was drawn to the useful work of the Society and goodwill was declared for its labors.
In the post-reform period, the VEO played a leading social role, being one of the centers of economic thought of the liberal landowners and the bourgeoisie. In the 1860s and 70s, the Society discussed the development of the peasant land community.
However, from the second half of the 1890s, the period of rapid prosperity of the Society's activities was replaced by a time of increasing decline, which was facilitated by the liberal sentiments of some of its members. In the 1890s, public disputes between “legal Marxists” and populists about the “fate of capitalism” in Russia took place in the VEO, which caused discontent with the authorities.
The government demanded to turn the Society into a narrow technical and agronomic institution, insisted on changing its charter in the direction of limiting it only to practical issues of agriculture and industry.
In 1895, the "unreliable" Literacy Committee was rejected from the VEO, in 1898, the Committee for Aid to the Hungry, which operated under the Society, was closed, some VEO publications were banned, and the minutes of its meetings were seized. In 1900, the authorities banned public meetings of the Society, placed its work under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture and state property... During this period, VEO actually curtailed its work, restoring it in full only after the Tsar's Manifesto of 1905. In 1905-1906 it published reviews of the agrarian movement in Russia, in 1907-11 - questionnaires on the attitude of the peasantry to the Stolypin agrarian reform.
During the First World War, when it became necessary to mobilize the reserves of the state, a Special Commission was created in the Society for the needs of the war. The famous Voentorg in Moscow was created by VEO at its own expense in order to sell goods cheaper to all officers who participated in hostilities. The VEO also organized assistance to the victims of the war, while discussing issues of the state wartime budget and the situation of economic disorder. During one of these meetings in 1915, the activities of the Society were suddenly interrupted and banned. After February revolution In 1917, the VEO became active again, with it even created the Petrograd branch of the League of Agrarian Reforms (chairman M.I.Tugan-Baranovsky). The League became an ideological center for the preparation of land reform. However, after the October Revolution, there was no place at all for a Society with "free" principles. The complete cessation of any subsidies and political persecution hastened its disintegration, recorded in 1919. It was in 1919 that the most valuable scientific library of the society was closed, 200 thousand volumes of which were actually plundered during the Civil War.
Only many years later, in 1963, the Society, which had done so much for the good of the Fatherland, was recalled in connection with a letter to the Central Committee of the CPSU of the historian A.P. Berdyshev, who proposed celebrating the 200th anniversary of the VEO. But functionaries from the Central Committee of the CPSU and VASKHNIL blocked the initiative, considering it “inexpedient”.
The social traditions of Russian economists really began to revive only in 1982, when the Scientific and Economic Society (NEO) emerged, which created its branches in all regions of the then USSR. The initiative to create the NEO belonged to Academician T.S. Khachaturov. In 1987, with the active participation of V.S. Pavlov. - President of VEO, a prominent statesman and scientist - NEO was transformed into the All-Union Economic Society. In 1992, the historical name of the Free Economic Society of Russia was returned to the organization of economists. VEO of Russia is the spiritual successor and successor of the traditions of the imperial Free Economic Society, which is legally enshrined. A huge contribution to the formation of the Society's activities rightfully belongs to the President of the VEO of Russia, Professor G. Kh. Popov.
V. V. Oreshkin Free Economic Society in Russia, 1765-1917. M., 1963.
Free Economic Society (VEO), one of the oldest in the world and the first economic society in Russia (free - formally independent from government departments).
Free Economic Society (VEO), one of the oldest in the world and the first economic society in Russia (free - formally independent from government departments). It was founded in St. Petersburg in 1765 by large landowners who were striving to rationalize agriculture and increase the productivity of serf labor in the conditions of a growing market and commercial agriculture. The founding of the VEO was one of the manifestations of the policy of enlightened absolutism. VEO began its activity by announcing competition problems, publishing "VEO Proceedings" (1766-1915, more than 280 volumes) and annexes to them. The first competition was announced on the initiative of Catherine II in 1766: "What is the property of a farmer (peasant) in his land that he cultivates, or in movable property, and what right can he have to both for the benefit of the whole people?" Of the 160 responses by Russian and foreign authors, the most progressive was Op. lawyer A. Ya. Polenov, who criticized serfdom. The answer displeased the VEO competition committee and was not published. Until 1861, 243 competitive problems of a political economy, scientific and economic nature were announced. Political economic issues concerned 3 problems: 1) land ownership and serfdom, 2) the comparative advantage of corvee and quitrent, 3) the use of hired labor in agriculture.
The Society published the first statistical and geographical studies of Russia. VEO contests, periodicals contributed to the introduction of industrial crops, improved agricultural implements into agriculture, the development of animal husbandry (especially sheep breeding), beekeeping, sericulture, sugar beet, distillery, and linen industries in patrimonial farms. At the end of the 18th century. Agronomists A.T. Bolotov, I.M.Komov, V.A.Levshin, scientist A.A. Nartov, famous politician M.I.Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Admiral A.I.Sinyavin, poet G. R. Derzhavin. In the first half of the 19th century. NS Mordvinov, KD Kavelin, IV Vernadsky took an active part in its work. In the post-reform period, the VEO played a leading social role, was one of the centers of economic thought of the liberal landowners and the bourgeoisie. In the 60s and 70s. discussed the development of the peasant land community. In the late 90s. In the VEO, there were public disputes between the "legal Marxists" and the populists about the "fate of capitalism" in Russia. In the 60s and 80s. the society conducted a great scientific agronomic activity. In 1861-1915, D.I. Mendeleev, V.V.Dokuchaev, A.M.Butlerov, A.N.Beketov, P.P.Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, Yu.E. Yanson, N. F. Annensky, M. M. Kovalevsky, L. N. Tolstoy, A. B. Struve, M. I. Tugan-Baranovsky, O. D. Forsh, E. V. Tarle.
In 1900, the tsarist government launched an offensive against the VEO, seeking to turn it into a narrow technical and agronomic institution. The famine relief committees (founded in the 90s) and the literacy committee (founded in 1861) were closed, a demand was made to revise the society's charter, and unauthorized persons were denied access to VEO meetings. Despite this, the VEO in 1905-1906 published reviews of the agrarian movement in Russia, in 1907-11 a questionnaire about the attitude of the peasantry to the Stolypin agrarian reform. In 1915 the activity of the VEO actually ceased, in 1919 the society was formally liquidated.
Lit .: Khodnev A.I., History of the Imperial Free Economic Society from 1765 to 1865, St. Petersburg, 1865; Beketov A.N., Historical sketch of the 25-year activity of the Imperial Free Economic Society from 1865 to 1890, St. Petersburg. 1890; Kovalevsky MM, To the 150th anniversary of the Imperial Free Economic Society, "Bulletin of Europe", 1915, Vol. 12; Bak I. S., A. Ya. Polenov, in collection: Historical notes, t. 28, [M.], 1949; Oreshkin V.I., Free Economic Society in Russia (1765-1917), Historical and Economic Essay, M., 1963.
History of VEO Russia
In 1765, a group of famous people in Russia (Count Vorontsov, Prince Grigory Orlov, Count Chernyshev, Olsufiev and others) sent a letter to Empress Catherine II with the following content:
Most Merciful, Most Reigning, Great - Wise Empress and Autocrat of All Russia, Most Merciful Empress!
The reign of your IMPERIAL MAJESTY is that plan for the fatherland, in which our bliss is apparently accomplished. With Your Majesty's tireless work and care of affairs, the integrity and well-being of the Empire of the constituent, apparently, so much your patronage acts towards the Sciences and Arts; and in this way they are encouraged in the subjects of your heart, the lovers in teaching themselves and in the enlightenment of others. Considering this, we, the all-subject, will unite by voluntary agreement to establish a meeting between us, in which we will set out to work together to improve Agriculture and Household Construction. Our zeal and zeal, no matter how great, but when they are not backed up by the patronage of the Monarchs, then our work will be without implementation.
Members of the Free Economic Society
In a response message, Catherine wrote:
Gentlemen, members of the Free Economic Society,
The intention that you have undertaken to correct agriculture and house building is very pleasant to Us, and the work that comes from it will be a direct proof of your true zeal and love for your Fatherland. We praise your plan and charter, which you have pledged to each other, and in the consent of that Most mercifully test that you have called yourself the Free Economic Society. Let us be trustworthy that WE are acceptable in our special patronage; for the seal you are requesting, we not only allow you to use in all cases, during your labors, Our Emperor's coat of arms, but as a sign of Our excellent favor to you, we allow you to put our own motto inside it, bees in the hive bringing honey with the inscription Useful. On top of that, we still grant, most mercifully, to your society six thousand rubles for renting a decent house, both for your collection and for the establishment of an Economic Library in it. Your labor with God's help will reward you and your descendants with your own benefit, and WE, in proportion to your Desire to multiply, will not leave Our Grace to you.
Catherine October 31 days 1765
The specified date on the letter is considered the beginning of the existence of the oldest scientific and public organization in the world and the first in our country.
The first Charter of the Society said: "There is no convenient way to increase the national well-being in any state, how to try to bring the economy into a better state, showing the proper ways in which natural crops are used with great benefit and old shortcomings can be corrected." In the future, the goals and objectives of the VEO were repeatedly specified and expanded in the general economic direction, covering not only agriculture, but also industry. From its first meetings, the Society placed research at the center of its activities, thereby laying the foundation for the study of the country's economic life. In one of the early documents of the VEO it was noted: "What is not in Russia - everything that is necessary is found; it is necessary to use what is proposed in nature, knowledge, study and review are required ...".
In 1766, VEO held the first competition on a question sent by Catherine II: "What is the property of a farmer - is it in his land, which he cultivates, or in movable property, and what right can he have to both for the benefit of the nation?" Subsequently, various competitions on political economic and applied agricultural and technical problems were held regularly: in the first century of the Society's work alone, 243 problems were announced, among which the 1796 competition for compiling the "People's Encyclopedia" with the aim of popularizing scientific knowledge can be singled out.
From the first days of the VEO's life, practical work began - free distribution of seeds, the introduction of a potato culture, hitherto unknown to Russians. In 1766, the Society raised the issue of spare stores and public smells. Soon, VEO also began to manufacture smallpox vaccines for the population. However, economic analytics remained the main focus of VEO's activities.
In 1790, the Society developed and published an extensive program of local research entitled: "Inscription for the usual task and rewarding of those works, which economic descriptions of private Russian governorships will be reported to him." In 1801, the VEO obtained the highest order to "compel the governors to answer", and from 1829 collected the necessary information from the landlords and clergy. In 1847, the Society collected and published data on the prices of bread, forests and the timber industry, two years later it equipped a special expedition to collect information about the black earth strip, in 1853 it published materials on agricultural statistics.
On the day of its 100th anniversary, VEO organized a congress of Russian farmers, at which the question was comprehensively discussed: "What should be the measures to study Russia economically, and what participation can both the Free Economic Society and others take in this matter? scientists". The next year, together with the Geographical Society, an extensive study of the grain trade and productivity in Russia was undertaken, which resulted in a number of scientific works (Barkovsky, Yanson, Bezobrazova and others).
In 1870, the VEO began to study the activities of zemstvos and published a special "Zemsky Yearbook", and in 1877 undertook a study of the Russian community, which ended with the publication of a solid collection. In 1889, the Society conducted a study of peasants' arrears on the example of one of the counties of the Russian hinterland, in 1896-98 - a study of agricultural artels in the Kherson province. At the same time, according to the reports of Chuprov, Posnikov, Annensky, the question of the impact of harvests on different aspects of economic life was studied, according to the reports of Tugan-Baranovsky and Struve, the question of the direction of Russia's economic development was debated.
The financial problems of the country were also in the field of view of the members of the Society. In 1886, the VEO raised the issue of income tax, in 1893 it sharply protested against the introduction of the salt tax, in 1896 it discussed a draft monetary reform in Russia, and in 1898 it petitioned for a revision of customs tariffs.
Since the 20s of the XIX century, the Society has been actively involved in agricultural education. In 1833, Emperor Nicholas I gave him capital, for which rural teachers had been preparing for a long time. For many years VEO maintained its own agricultural school, beekeeping school, had its own workshop and even a museum. Dealing with problems of soil science, the Society summarized the well-known works of Dokuchaev in the book "Russian Chernozem".
The Society paid much attention to the issues of statistics, developing the methodology and methods of organizing the valuation business. In 1900, a congress of zemstvo statisticians was convened at the special statistical commission of the VEO.
Since 1849, under the auspices of the VEO, numerous exhibitions have been held: herd cattle, dairy farming, agricultural tools and machines, dried fruits and vegetables, etc. In 1850 and 1860, the Society organized exhibitions of "rural works" on an all-Russian scale. At several international and world exhibitions (Paris, 1878, 1889; Prague, 1879; Chicago, 1893 and others), VEO expositions were awarded the highest awards.
At various times, among the members of the Society there were such outstanding scientists as Beketov, Vernadsky, Lesgaft, Mendeleev, famous travelers - Bellingshausen, Kruzenshtern, Litke, Semenov-Tyan-Shansky, writers - Derzhavin, Stasov, Tolstoy. In 1909, the VEO had more than 500 members, and there were also correspondents in a number of foreign countries. The Society existed at the expense of government subsidies, numerous private donations and membership fees, had its own house in St. Petersburg, at one time owned part of Petrovsky Island and an experimental farm on the Okhta River.
All scientific and practical activities of the VEO are reflected in the "Proceedings of the Imperial Free Economic Society" (281 issues), published from its very foundation until 1915, not counting over 150 individual essays on various issues and publications of the Literacy Committee, which worked under the Society from 1861 to 1895 year. In addition, periodicals were published under the VEO flag at different times: "Economic News", "Circle of Economic Information", "Atlas of the Museum of the Imperial Free Economic Society", "Lesnoy Zhurnal", "Economic Notes", "Russian Beekeeping List" and others. ...
The privileged position of VEO and the rights given to him were confirmed by each of the successors of Catherine II (with the exception of Paul I) upon their accession to the throne. In the last highest rescript, given on November 21, 1894, attention was drawn to the useful work of the Society and goodwill was declared for its labors.
From the second half of the 1890s, the period of rapid prosperity of the Society's activities was replaced by a time of increasing decline, which was facilitated by the liberal sentiments of some of its members, which caused discontent with the authorities. In 1895, the "unreliable" Literacy Committee was rejected from the VEO, in 1898 the Committee for Assistance to the Famine, which operated under the Society, was closed, some VEO publications were banned, and the minutes of its meetings were seized. In 1900, the authorities banned public meetings of the Society, placed its work under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture and State Property, and demanded that the Charter be revised in the direction of restricting narrowly practical issues. VEO actually curtailed its work, restoring it in full only after the Tsar's Manifesto of 1905.
When the First broke out World War, VEO organized assistance to the victims of the war, while discussing issues of the state wartime budget and the situation of economic disorder. During one of these meetings in 1915, the activities of the Society were suddenly interrupted and banned. After the February Revolution of 1917, the VEO became active again, with it even created the Petrograd branch of the League of Agrarian Reforms. However, after the October Revolution, there was no place at all for a Society with "free" principles. The complete cessation of any subsidies and political persecution hastened its disintegration, recorded in 1919. Only many years later, in 1963, the Society, which had done so much for the good of the Fatherland, was recalled in connection with a letter to the Central Committee of the CPSU of the historian A.P. Berdyshev, who proposed celebrating the 200th anniversary of the VEO. But functionaries from the Central Committee of the CPSU and VASKHNIL blocked the initiative, considering it "inexpedient."
The social traditions of Russian economists really began to revive only in 1982, when the Scientific and Economic Society (NEO) emerged, which created its branches in all regions of the then USSR. The initiative to create the NEO belonged to Academician T.S. Khachaturov. In 1987, with the active participation of V.S. - President of VEO, a prominent statesman and scientist - NEO was transformed into the All-Union Economic Society. In 1992, the organization of economists was returned to its historical name - the Free Economic Society of Russia. VEO of Russia is the spiritual successor and successor of the traditions of the imperial Free Economic Society, which is legally enshrined. A huge contribution to the formation of the Society's activities rightfully belongs to the President of the VEO of Russia, Professor G.Kh. Popov.
VEO today is an organization with branches in almost all regions of Russia. The society unites more than 11 thousand organizations, about 300 thousand economists and practitioners, employees of state, public enterprises and organizations, new economic structures. Members of the VEO of Russia have united their efforts in order to form public opinion on the most important issues of the country's economic development, actively cooperate with government agencies, assess various projects and programs, conduct research work, advise representatives of federal, regional and local authorities on current issues. economic policy. The activities of the Free Economic Society of Russia have found understanding and support from the country's top leaders. The reputation of VEO Russia is undeniable.
VEO of Russia conducts major research, participates in international forums and conferences. Among them are the All-Russian Forum "Problems of the Long-Term Development of the Russian Economy" in the Kremlin, round tables "Economic Growth of Russia" chaired by Vice-President of the VEO of Russia, Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences L.I. Abalkinav in the House of the Economist, a cycle of studies "Problems of National and International Economic Security", "Anti-crisis management in the banking and industrial sphere", International congresses on interregional cooperation.
VEO of Russia is the initiator of the creation of the International Union of Economists, being its member, the Society carries out significant work to promote the economic and social progress of the world community, participates in the development of interregional programs of the UN, UNESCO, European Union, Pacific Cooperation Council. VEO of Russia also actively cooperates with foreign non-governmental structures, enterprises, foundations, scientists. Such programs of the VEO of Russia, carried out in cooperation with international organizations, as "Problems of employment of the population", "Problems of investment, development of the financial and banking system", " Ecological problems safe and sustainable development of the world economy ", the forum" World experience and the economy of Russia ".
Members of the VEO of Russia are actively working to train a new generation of economists. The society has developed a concept for teaching the basics of economics in schools, since until now this science has not been included in the curriculum of compulsory secondary education. Schoolchildren, undergraduate and graduate students have the opportunity to submit their scientific work on economic issues to the society All-Russian competition young economists on the topic “Russia's economic growth”. It is very popular not only in Moscow, but also in the regions - more than 4.5 thousand people enter the jury. The winners of the competition receive not only substantial monetary awards, but also the opportunity to publish their works in a separate volume of "Proceedings of the Free Economic Society". The Association of Young Economists was formed and started to work actively under the VEO of Russia.
The Free Economic Society of Russia works for both the future and the present. In this regard, the Russian competition “Manager of the Year” organized by the VEO of Russia and the International Academy of Management with the support of the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation is of particular importance. Holding such a competition is not just a selection of the best representatives from the corps of managers, it is a serious reason for comprehending the path traveled, developing guidelines for further development Russian economy. This competition is designed to help improve management efficiency. The organizers see the tasks of the competition in identifying the elite of the Russian management corps, disseminating the experience of effective leadership. The jury, which included ministers of various industries, their deputies, directors of large enterprises, scientists, is headed by the Honorary Chairman of the Federation Council of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation E.S. Stroyev.
Members of the Society give lectures, conduct seminars for managers, accountants, heads of marketing services and other employees of various firms. These advanced training programs help to improve the efficiency of enterprises and organizations.
The VEO of Russia, like the pre-revolutionary Imperial Society, is active in publishing. To the 90th anniversary of T.S. Khachaturov published a collection of his works, dedicated to the 70th anniversary of L.I. Abalkin published a four-volume edition of his works, together with the International Union of Economists and the International Academy of Management, an information bulletin "Economy" is being published. Since 1994, the annual publication of the "Proceedings" of the society has been renewed. More than 40 scientific volumes have already been published. I must say that from 1982 to 2002, VEO of Russia published almost the same number of scientific works, how many Imperial Society for 152 years of its existence from 1765 to 1917. The "Bibliographic Reference Book of VEO Publications" has been published, a unique collection that contains information about all publications of the Society from 1765 to the present, including publications of all regional organizations of the VEO of Russia. VEO of Russia published the newspaper Byloe, for several years the newspaper Economic News of Russia and the Commonwealth and the collection of normative acts Documents have been published. The total annual circulation of scientific works, newspaper magazines published by the Free Economic Society of Russia and the International Union of Economists is 11 million copies of printed materials. A gallery of portraits of all the VEO presidents was created and a book-album of biographies of the VEO presidents was published on the basis of serious archival research (in Russian and English).
On some important achievements of VEO.
“My motto is a bee, which, flying from plant to plant, collects honey to carry it to the hive, and the inscription to this is“ Useful ”, wrote Russian empress Catherine II Voltaire. This idea of her "brand", as they would say in our time, was presented by the Empress to the Imperial Free Economic Society, created in 1765, about the first steps of which we wrote in the last issue of Free Economy. Let's see how the Society lived up to this motto.
Dreams of enlightenment
The Empress, who lived in the spirit of the Enlightenment, was friends and corresponded with Voltaire and Diderot, dreamed of changing the Russian Empire, to continue the course of reforms begun by Peter I. While the industrial revolution was under way in Europe, the agrarian issue was the main issue in the Russian Empire. Agriculture employed 9/10 of its population, and droughts and crop failures led to hunger and loss of life. Catherine dreamed of abolishing serfdom, but the alliance of autocracy with the nobility in those years could not be called into question and shaken by premature actions.
Under these conditions, Catherine acted wisely: she blessed the birth of a third force - a public one, which first appeared in our country with the creation of the Imperial Free Economic Society.
From the first meetings of the Society there in the first place was often the problem of the life and work of the peasants.
Despite the fact that during the reign of Catherine II serfdom only grew stronger, this strengthening was rather a reaction of the ruling class to the natural movement towards the liberation of the peasants, this topic reached the level of public polemics, the Overton Window was opened. Catherine was in no hurry with decisions of this level - the abolition of serfdom with insufficient preparation would have led to the most sad consequences. Yes, and the Pugachev revolt did not add resolve.
Contests
One of the most effective ways public opinion surveys, on the basis of which it was possible to conduct analytics and conduct research, were VEO contests, the task of which was to collect the maximum number of opinions of caring people. During the first century of work, 243 problems were made on them, which were offered to everyone who wanted to solve them.
In addition to love for the Fatherland, the obvious motivation for participating in them were awards and medals, as well as the possibility of a social lift and support for an influential organization for the author of the study. For example, Efim Andreevich Grachev, a seed scientist and gardener who grew 4 tons of champignons a year, was a regular participant in the meetings of the Free Economic Society, it helped him get rare seeds from abroad and supported him in every possible way.
Grachev became the winner of a dozen world exhibitions and, unlike most gardeners of that time, did not hide his "secrets", but easily shared them.
Grachev's example is not unique. The Free Economic Society contests became an opportunity not only to learn more about the people, to find talents in society, but to give them the opportunity to develop. True, so far it was mainly about the nobility.
Research method
The meetings of the Imperial VEO were not an empty "talking shop", from the first days it relied on practice, on real steps to improve life on the basis of research into the economic, and not only economic, situation in the country.
In one of the early documents of the VEO it was noted: “What is not in Russia - everything that is needed is found; it is necessary to use what is proposed in nature, knowledge, diligence and observation are required ... "
At first, there were projects of the Society related only to the peasantry and agriculture (for example, sending out seeds, organizing agricultural exhibitions, promoting potatoes), then the development of industry became the agenda.
Smallpox control
VEO showed itself decisively and prudently during the period of smallpox fever in St. Petersburg. The Free Economic Society spent a lot of money to educate the population and put a lot of effort in upholding the idea of universal vaccination.
Wanting to set an example to her subjects, Catherine II was vaccinated against smallpox herself. In memory of the act of the empress, a medal was made with the image of Catherine on one side and the temple of the ancient Greek god of medical art Aesculapius, from which the healed empress and heir emerge, on the other.
Wishing to set an example to her subjects, Catherine II was vaccinated herself, and after a successful outcome she wrote to the Prussian king Frederick II, who pointed out to her the unreasonable risk that she was "taught from childhood to harbor a terror of smallpox," and therefore she preferred to be exposed to the least danger ... and thus save many people.
In memory of the act of the empress, a medal was made with the image of Catherine on one side and the temple of the ancient Greek god of medical art Aesculapius, from which the healed empress and heir emerge, on the other. Above they made the inscription: "I set an example with myself", below the date: "1768 October 12".
In 1846, the first permanent smallpox vaccination room in Russia was opened in the VEO building.
GREAT FIGURES OF THE IMPERIAL VEO
Mikhail Illarionovich Golenishchev-Kutuzov(5.09.1745 - 04.16.1813) - commander-in-chief during Patriotic War 1812
Alexander Nikolaevich Radishchev(20.08.1749 - 12.09.1802) - writer, philosopher, author of Travel from St. Petersburg to Moscow.
Leonard Euler(15.04.1707, Switzerland - 7.9.1783, Russian Empire) - mathematician, physicist, astronomer, chemist, etc. He made a great contribution to the development of many sciences.
Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky(1.01.1772 - 11.02.1839) - Russian statesman, progressive reformer under Alexander I and Nicholas I.
Dmitriy Mendeleev(01/27/1834 - 01/20/1907) - scientist-encyclopedist, author of the periodic table of elements - one of the basic laws of nature.
Nikolay Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay(5.07.1846 - 2.04.1888) - ethnographer, researcher of the peoples of Southeast Asia, Australia and Oceania.
Nikolay Semenovich Mordvinov(04/17/1754 - 03/30/1845) - admiral, one of the founders of the Black Sea Fleet, chairman of the Imperial VEO in 1823 - 1840.
Sergey Yulievich Witte(06/17/1849 - 02/28/1915) - statesman, head of government, author of the policy of industrial development of Russia.
Museum
“To monitor foreign farming and write out models of the best arable implements from those places where agriculture is flourishing and keep them with the Society,” read the first text of the Society's Charter.
By 1792, a lot of models had accumulated, and a curator was assigned to them, 11 years later, in 1803, a permanent agricultural exhibition - a museum - was opened at the Society. It was very popular: the subjects of the Empire sent the Society from all over the country and samples of fabric, and seeders, and microscopes, and woodwork.
Soon the museum grew so much that the list of the names of the artifacts from the exposition alone occupied one hundred pages in the catalog.
In 1829, on the basis of the museum, workshops were also set up, where equipment of its own production was produced. All cars from there were immediately sold out.
VDNKh prototype
The idea of organizing an exhibition of the achievements of the national economy appeared long before the appearance of the USSR. And if under Peter I small technical exhibitions were organized "for their own", then in the 19th century they became public.
The Imperial Free Economic Society began to hold economic exhibitions under its auspices in 1849. In addition to the agricultural means of production already familiar from the Museum, they presented new products produced by different farms, advanced varieties of fruits, vegetables and much more.
At many prestigious exhibitions, including in Paris in 1878 and 1889, in Prague in 1879, in Chicago in 1893 and others, VEO expositions were awarded the highest awards.
Education
Since the 20s of the XIX century, VEO has been actively engaged in the problems of what we would now call education and enlightenment, including in the field of economics or the national economy.
In 1833, Nicholas I donated capital to the Society for these purposes, and VEO began training teachers for the village.
In 1880, VEO submitted its project of peasant rural schools to the Ministry of State Property. They had to work for all classes, children and adults from 14 years old were accepted for training, the students had to master the course in four years.
The disciplines were as follows: Russian language, the law of God, reading and calligraphy, geometry and arithmetic, natural science and geography. It also studied “livestock breeding with practical guidelines for veterinary art and hygiene”. Gymnastics, accounting and singing were optional subjects.
The project was approved by the ministry. Already in 1898, 110 rural schools were operating in the Russian Empire, in which 4033 people studied.
In 1904, a three-stage education system was formed in the country. By 1910, more than 20,000 people were enrolled in 243 agricultural educational institutions in Russia.
Scientific work
In terms of the total number of luminaries of science and "remarkable people" in its ranks, VEO confidently holds first place among public organizations in the history of the Russian Empire. These are hundreds of outstanding people
Let's list just a few: Sergei Witte, Leonard Euler, Dmitry Mendeleev, Mikhail Kutuzov, Faddey Bellingshausen, Ivan Kruzenshtern, Nikolai Miklukho-Maclay, Pyotr Stolypin, Gabriel Derzhavin, Lev Tolstoy, Alexander Radishchev, Nikolai Mordvinov, Mikhail, Orlov, Roman Vorontsov ...
This "star lineup" has been going for many years. Involving ethnographers, geographers, chemists, physicists, mathematicians, biologists, travelers, industrialists, the Free Economic Society has infinitely expanded the range of its work, which means it has brought more benefits than the one commanded by Catherine the Great.
VEO as an expert institute
As we have already noted, one of the key areas of IWEO activity was economic analytics - information was collected from the regions, research and expeditions were carried out, and "Zemsky Yearbook" was published.
From the first days of its existence, the Society was actively engaged in publishing - it distributed millions of copies of brochures and books free of charge, including more than 126 publications of its Literacy Committee.
During the First World War, a Special Commission for the needs of the war was created in the Free Economic Society.
At the expense of the Society, the famous Voentorg was created in Moscow and all-round assistance to the victims of the war was organized - from collecting donations and supporting hospitals to organizing societies in villages that were provided with trusteeship.
This is just a quick look at some of the outstanding milestones in the work of the Imperial Free Economic Society, of course, there are much more of them and it is worth talking about them in more detail, which we will do in the next issues of the magazine.
Text: Alexey Rudevich
EDUCATION IS THE BASIS OF INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS
DECEMBER 3, 1897 GENERAL MEETING OF THE IMPERIAL WOLF ECONOMIC SOCIETY
From the report of the chairman of the III Department, Professor Leonid Vladimirovich Khodsky, on the issue of lowering duties on cast iron.
“The past 12 years of systematic patronage of iron-smelting and iron-making factories have not brought the desired results ... If over the past decade all factories have failed to catch up with Europe in technology in order to compete with it, this situation will continue. We are moving forward, but the progress of technology in the West does not stop, waiting for the East to catch up with it. In achieving the latter goal, duties are powerless. This could be achieved only by the development of the Russian folk genius through general education and the dissemination of technical knowledge among the masses of the population. Only with such an internal patronizing policy, without sparing efforts and money, you can conquer with your industry not only domestic but also foreign markets. "
REFERENCE
L.V. Chodsky (1854-1919) - Russian economist, publicist, professor at St. Petersburg University. In the 1890s, he was chairman of the III Branch of the Free Economic Society (agricultural statistics and political economy). He wrote several textbooks on political economy (2 editions, 1884 and 1887), finance (Fundamentals of State Economy, 1894) and statistics (1896).
You can learn more about the history of VEO from volume 200 of "Proceedings of the Free Economic Society of Russia", which is entirely devoted to the activities of the Imperial Free Economic Society. It is available in .pdf format on the organization's website - veorus.ru. In the same place, in the "Library" section, there are digitized pre-revolutionary volumes of the Society's works from the day of its foundation.
§ 4. Colonies of foreigners
O The understanding of the low efficiency of forced labor is evidenced, in particular, by an attempt to clearly show the advantages of free labor by creating a wide network of exemplary farms based on free labor. In the conditions of serf Russia, such a mission was entrusted to foreign settlers from countries Western Europe... Decree
O the invitation to Russia for those wishing to engage in agriculture was issued a few months after the accession of Catherine II - October 14, 1762. The conditions that were proposed are impressive. Foreigners were promised the opportunity to farm "in the most fertile lands in the world." Here they were to be placed in pre-built houses, provided with livestock and household equipment. All this was offered for a loan, the payment of which in small installments must be repaid over a long period of time. The settlers were granted self-government, freedom of religion, it was forbidden only to build monasteries. Along with agriculture, they could engage in fishing activities, establish fairs and auctions, conduct trade both within the state and with other countries. For a long time, they were exempted from all duties, including recruiting. And all this in serf Russia, in the conditions of tightening serfdom here. The scale of the plan is evidenced by the size of the appropriations: during the reign of Catherine, over five million rubles were allocated for this.
- the amount for those times is huge.
The practical implementation of what was planned was carefully thought out. In St. Petersburg, a special institution was created: the Office of the Guardianship of Foreigners, which was in charge of resettlement affairs. The then favorite of Catherine II Aleksey Orlov, endowed with the broadest powers, was put at the head of the chancellery. Describing his business qualities, Catherine emphasized diligence and exceptional energy in carrying out the assigned tasks, which also emphasized the importance attached to the new enterprise. The office of guardianship was accountable to the entire network of institutions created on the ground, in charge of the demarcation of land. At the same time, they were ordered to take into account even the fact that, in order to avoid possible clashes, representatives of different religious confessions did not coexist with each other. Lands for immigrants were allocated in the central provinces of Russia, as well as in St. Petersburg. But the main habitats were supposed to be the then semi-empty lands of the Middle Volga region and the Northern Black Sea region.
In the countries of Western Europe, a system of recruiting points was created. Such a broadly conceived event, however, did not justify hopes. There were several reasons. Perhaps the main thing was that, despite a well-organized recruitment service, instead of the expected hardworking and knowledgeable agricultural technicians of farmers, skilled artisans, few ventured to Russia, primarily seekers of an easy life, a significant part of whom consisted of declassed elements rejected by society ... In addition, the measures outlined in St. Petersburg for the timely separation of land, the construction of houses and the fulfillment of other conditions were not implemented. On the outskirts, the small local population greeted the newcomers unfriendly. The landowners, in the context of the development of market relations, themselves have taken to the fertile lands. The local administration immediately saw the source of profit here. The Russian reality, thus, overturned the reform plans proposed by the government, showing their illusory nature. Two years later, in conditions when the newly arrived colonists, brought to undeveloped lands, turned out to be dependents of the treasury, it was decided to suspend the influx of new ones for a while. The permit was renewed only in the 70s, after more than 10 years had passed and had already different goals: to facilitate settlement
uninhabited places. The colonies of foreigners did not play any significant role in the economic life of Russia. The economy of foreign settlers improved only after several decades, through the efforts of subsequent generations. But even then, these settlements of the colonists existed separately, not in close contact with the surrounding population.
Thus, large-scale plans had to be abandoned. In conditions Russia XVII 1st century they turned out to be unrealistic, since they were not provided with economic and social guarantees. The local administration was unable to fulfill the task entrusted to it, and the locals perceived the newly arrived settlers unfriendly, especially against the background of the privileges that were granted to them.
Control questions
1. Describe the main features of enlightened absolutism and its specificity in Russia in the second half of the 18th century.
2. Give an assessment to Catherine II's "Instruction" of the Legislative Commission.
3. Why are there no articles about the most numerous class - the peasantry - in the mentioned "Instruction"?
4. Why did the work of the Legislated Commission fail, and what was the significance of it?
5. In whose interests was the activities of the Free Economic Society
6. Link the idea of organizing colonies of foreigners with the ideas of the "Order".
Literature
1. Brickner A. The story of Catherine II. T. 1-2. M., 1991.
2. Druzhinin N.M. Enlightened absolutism in Russia / Absolutism in Russia (XVII-XVIII centuries). M., 1964.
3. Kamensky A.B. The life and fate of Catherine the Great. M., 1997.
4. Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history course. Op. in 9 volumes.Vol. 4.M., 1989.
5. Moryakov V.I. Russian enlightenment second half. XVIII century M., 1994.
6. Omelchenko O. Ya. "Legal Monarchy" of Catherine II. M., 1993.
7. Pavlenko N.I. Catherine the Great. Ed. 2nd. M., 2000.
Chapter XIX Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the XVIII century.
Second half of the 18th century became a time of significant development of agriculture, industry and trade. This was facilitated by both objective circumstances and the purposeful activities of the government. After all, it was the economic sphere that to a large extent ensured the stability of society, constitutes the economic foundation military power the state.
§ 1. Agriculture
In the second half of the 18th century. the main sphere of activity of the overwhelming part of the population, the main source of vital benefits remained agriculture. The increase in agricultural production was carried out, first of all, due to the annexation of vast territories to Russia and the development of lands that were not previously cultivated. So, at this time, the Right-Bank Ukraine, the lands of Belarus, the Baltic States became part of Russia. Beginning in the 30s, as a result of landlord and partly peasant colonization, vast areas of the Trans-Volga region began to be developed for agricultural land. The victories of Russian weapons, as well as the organizational activities of G.A. Potemkin was stimulated by the development of the lands of the Northern Black Sea region. Thus, the agricultural balance of Russia included vast lands, some of which had previously been a zone of relatively intensive farming.
One of the consequences of this was the further deepening of the geographical division of labor. The main producers of bread are the provinces of the Chernozem center, stretching from the middle reaches of the Dnieper to the middle reaches of the Volga. Here the grain yield was five or more itself. Along with the traditional crops - rye, oats, barley, the sowing of wheat, which is in high demand in the domestic and foreign markets, is expanding. Grain harvesting on marginal non-chernozem soils in a vast area covering part of Belarus, Smolensk region, Tver, Novgorod, Pskov, Vologda and other provinces, often did not provide the population with bread, especially in conditions of frequent crop failures. (In the 18th century, there were 30 lean years on the territory of Russia.) But here, on podzolic soils, the crops of industrial crops were expanding: flax and hemp. Sowings of potatoes are increasing, which is becoming a vegetable garden. The population, on the other hand, buying bread supplied from the South and South-West, got the opportunity to expand fishing activities.
Along with the dominance of the traditional three-field system, steps are being taken to introduce multi-field, improve land cultivation, and organize seed production. A large contribution to this belonged to the above-mentioned Free Economic Society, founded in St. Petersburg. But even locally, thanks to the efforts of local enthusiasts, agronomic schools are being created. So, the Olonets governor Sivers announced the creation of a school where they teach how to grow potatoes and invited the landowners to send boys there for training.
Commercial gardening developed around capitals and large cities. So, the peasants of the Rostov district of the Yaroslavl province specialized in growing early vegetables and chicory.
Processing of agricultural raw materials is becoming an important area of landlord entrepreneurship. First of all, distillation should be noted, which has become widespread. The supply of wine to the treasury brought great profits. In 1756 the nobility was granted a monopoly on its supply. The scale of distilling is evidenced, in particular, by the fact that only in the Smolensk province in the 80s there were 568 distilleries "factories".
Cattle breeding, like agriculture, was notable for its low level. The peasants' livestock breeds were mostly unproductive. Cattle breeding was poorly developed in the landlord economy. But here, too, new trends emerged. So, in the north of the country, one of the best breeds of large cattle- Kholmogory. In the Oryol, Voronezh and other provinces, breeds of trotting and heavy draft horses are being bred, and fine-wool sheep breeding is being planted in the south of the country.
However, examples of this kind were sporadic. The bulk of the population continued to engage in agriculture in the old fashioned way.