Natural sources of hydrocarbons, their recycling. Message Natural sources of hydrocarbons The source of aromatic hydrocarbons is natural gas

– it consists (mainly) from methane and (in smaller quantities) of its nearest homologs - ethane, propane, butane, pentane, hexane, etc.; Observed in passing oil gas, i.e., natural gas, which is in nature over oil or dissolved in it under pressure.

Oil

- This is an oily combustible liquid consisting of alkanes, cycloalkanes, arena (predominate), as well as oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur-containing compounds.

Coal

- solid fuel, mineral fossil organic origin. It contains a little graphite A and many complex cyclic compounds, including elements C, H, O, N, and S. There are anthracite (almost anhydrous), stone coal (-4% moisture) and brown coal (50-60% moisture). The coal method is converted to hydrocarbons (gaseous, liquid and solid) and coke (sufficiently clean graphite).

Coal coking

Heating coal without access to 900-1050 ° C leads to its thermal decomposition with the formation of volatile products (coating gas, ammonia water and coke gas) and a solid residue - coke.

Main products: Coke - 96-98% carbon; Coke gas -60% hydrogen, 25% methane, 7% carbon oxide (II), etc.

By-products: coal resin (benzene, toluene), ammonia (from coke gas), etc.

Recycling Oil Recycling

Pre-purified oil is subjected to atmospheric (or vacuum) distillation on fractions with certain boiling temperature ranges in continuous distortion columns.

Main products: lightweight and heavy gasoline, kerosene, gas oil, lubricating oils, fuel oil, tar.

Oil refining with catalytic cracking

Raw materials: High-boiling oil fractions (kerosene, gas oil, etc.)

Auxiliary materials: Catalysts (modified aluminosilicates).

The main chemical process: at a temperature of 500-600 ° C and a pressure of 5 · 10 5 Pa Molecules of hydrocarbons are split into smaller molecules, catalytic cracking is accompanied by the reactions of aromatization, isomerization, alkylation.

Products: low boiling hydrocarbon mixture (fuel, raw materials for petrochemistry).

From 16.N 34 → C 8 H 18 + from 8 N 16
C 8 H 18 → C 4 H 10 + C 4N 8
C 4 H 10 → C 2 H 6 + C 2N 4

Natural sources of hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are all so different -
Liquid and solid, and gaseous.
Why are there so many of them in nature?
Case in insatiable carbon.

Indeed, this element, like no other, "unsaturated": it also strives to form the chains, straight and branched, then rings, then grids from a variety of its atoms. From here a plurality of compounds from carbon and hydrogen atoms.

Hydrocarbons are natural gas - methane, and other household combustible gas that fill cylinders - propane from 3 H 8. Hydrocarbons are oil, and gasoline, and kerosene. And also - an organic solvent with 6 H 6, paraffin, from which New Year's candles made, Vaseline from the pharmacy and even plastic bag For packaging products ...

The most important natural sources of hydrocarbons are minerals - stone coal, oil, gas.

COAL

On the globe knows more 36 thousandcoal pools and deposits that are combined 15% Terrible Bowl. Coal basins can reach thousands of kilometers. Total total coal reserves on the globe make up 5 trillion. 500 billion tons, including explored deposits - 1 trillion. 750 billion tons.

Three main types of fossil coal are distinguished. When burning brown coal, anthracite - the flame is invisible, the combustion of smokeless, and the stone coal with a burning is published loud crash.

Anthracite - The most ancient of fossil coal. Differs high density and gloss. Contains before 95% Carbon.

Coal - Contains before 99% Carbon. Of all fossil coal finds the wider application.

Brown coal - Contains before 72% Carbon. It has a brown color. As the youngest of fossil coal, often retains the traces of the tree structure, from which it was formed. Differs great hygroscopic and high ash content ( from 7% to 38%) Therefore, it is used only as local fuel and as raw materials for chemical processing. In particular, by its hydrogenation, valuable types of liquid fuel are obtained: gasoline and kerosene.

Carbon Main component of stone coal ( 99% ), brown coal ( up to 72%). The origin of the carbon title, that is, "referring coal." Similarly, the Latin name "Carboneum" is based on the root of carbo-coal.

Like oil, stone coal contains a large amount of organic matter. In addition to organic substances, it includes inorganic substances, such as water, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and, of course, carbon itself - coal. One of the main methods of coal processing is coking - calcination without air access. As a result of coking, which is carried out at a temperature of 1000 0 s, it is formed:

Coke gas - It consists of hydrogen, methane, cut and carbon dioxide, ammonia impurities, nitrogen and other gases.

Coal tar - Contains several hundred different organic substances, including benzene and its homologs, phenol and aromatic alcohols, naphthalene and different heterocyclic compounds.

Outsmolt or ammonia water - Containing how clear from the name dissolved ammonia, as well as phenol, hydrogen sulfide and other substances.

Coke - solid bowl of coking, practical clean carbon.

Coke is used in the production of cast iron and steel, ammonia - in the production of nitrogen and combined fertilizers, and the value of organic coking products is difficult to overestimate. What is the geography of the spread of this mineral?

The main part of coal resources falls on the Northern Hemisphere - Asia, North America, Eurasia. What countries are allocated for reserves and coal mining?

China, USA, India, Australia, Russia.

The main exporters of coal are countries.

USA, Australia, Russia, South Africa.

Main import centers.

Japan, Foreign Europe.

This is very environmentally friendly fuel. In coal mining, explosions and ignition of methane occur, certain problems associated with the environment arise.

Environmental pollution - This is any unwanted change in the state of this environment as a result of man's economic activity. This occurs during mining. Imagine the situation in the area of \u200b\u200bcoal mining. Together with coal, a huge amount of empty breed rises to the surface, which is simply sent to the dumps. Gradually form tercons- Huge, in tens of meters high, cone-shaped mountains of empty rocks that distort the appearance of a natural landscape. Does all the coal raised to the surface be sure to be removed to the consumer? Of course not. After all, the process is notching. A huge amount of coal dust settles on the ground surface. As a result, the composition of soils, groundwater, which will inevitably affect the animal and vegetable world district.

Coal contains radioactive carbon - C, but after burning fuel, a dangerous substance, along with smoke, enters the air, water, soil, sinters in slag or ash, which is used for the production of building materials. As a result, in residential buildings walls and overlapping "Foundations" and pose a threat to human health.

OIL

Oil is known to humanity since ancient times. On the banks of the Euphrates she was mined

6-7 thousand years before n. E. . It was used to illuminate the dwellings, for the preparation of mortars, as drugs and ointments, when embalmed. Oil in the ancient world was a formidable weapon: the fiery rivers flew to the heads of the storming walls, burning arrows moistened with oil, flew into the deposited cities. Oil was an integral part of the incendiary, included in the history entitled "Greek fire."In the Middle Ages, it was used mainly for lighting streets.

Oil and gas pools explored more than 600, 450 is developed , And the total number of petroleum fields reaches 50 thousand.

Distinguish light and heavy oil. Light oil is removed from subsoil pumps or fountain way. From such oil is mainly made by gasoline and kerosene. Heavy oil varieties sometimes mined even with a mine (in the Komi Republic), and be prepared from it bitumen, fuel oil, various oils.

Oil the most universal fuel, high calorie. Its mining is distinguished by relative simplicity and low cost, because when oil production there is no need to lower people under the ground. Transportation of oil through pipelines does not represent a big problem. The main disadvantage of this type of fuel is low resource supply (about 50 years ) . Total stocks are equal to 500 billion tons, including explored 140 billion tons .

AT 2007 year Russian scientists have proven to the world community that the underwater ridges of Lomonosov and Mendeleev, who are in the Northern Arctic Ocean are the shelf zone of the mainland, and therefore belong Russian Federation. About the composition of oil, its properties will tell a chemistry teacher.

Oil is a "bunch of energy". With the help of only 1 ml, it can be heated on one degree whole bucket of water, and in order to boil the wardrum samovar, you need less than half of the glass of oil. Upon concentration of energy in a unit of volume, oil ranks first among natural substances. Even radioactive ores cannot compete with it in this respect, as the content of radioactive substances in them is so small that to extract 1mg. Nuclear fuel should be recycled tons of rocks.

Oil is not only the basis of the fuel and energy complex of any state.

Here to the place of the famous words D. I. Mendeleev "Burn oil - it's the same thing to drown the oven assignments ". Each drop of oil contains more 900 various chemical compounds, more than half of the chemical elements of the periodic system. This is really a miracle of nature, the basis of the petrochemical industry. Approximately 90% of the entire oil produced is used as fuel. Despite “ your 10% " , Petrochemical synthesis provides many thousands of organic compounds that satisfy the urgent needs of modern society. No wonder people respectfully call oil "black gold", "blood of the earth."

Oil is an oily dark brown liquid with a reddish or greenish tint, sometimes black, red, blue or bright and even transparent with a characteristic sharp odor. It can be white or colorless oil, like water (for example, in the Suruhan deposit in Azerbaijan, in some fields in Algeria).

The composition of non-refinery oil. But all of them usually contain hydrocarbons of three species - alkanes (mainly normal structure), cycloalkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons. The ratio of these hydrocarbons in oil from various fields is different: for example, Mangyshlaka oil is rich in alkamen, and oil in the area of \u200b\u200bBaku - cycloalkanes.

Major oil reserves are located in the northern hemisphere. Total 75 The countries of the world produce oil, but 90% of its prey falls on a share of only 10 countries. Near ? World oil reserves fall on developing countries. (The teacher calls and shows on the map).

Main Countries Manufacturers:

Saudi Arabia, USA, Russia, Iran, Mexico.

At the same time more 4/5 Oil consumption falls on the share of economically developed countries, which are the main importing countries:

Japan, Foreign Europe, USA.

Oil in raw form is not used anywhere, but find the use of oil refining products.

Oil refining

The modern installation consists of a furnace for heating oil and distillation column, where oil is divided into fractions -separate hydrocarbon mixtures in accordance with their boiling temperatures: gasoline, ligroin, kerosene. In the furnace there is a long tube rolled into the serpent. The furnace is heated by the combustion products of fuel oil or gas. Oil is continuously supplied to the serpent: it is heated to 320-350 0 s in the form of a mixture of liquid and vapor enters the distillation column. The distillation column is a steel cylindrical apparatus with a height of about 40m. It has inside several dozen horizontal partitions with holes - the so-called plates. Pouments of oil, entering the column, rise up and pass through holes in plates. Gradually cooling up with its movement up, they are partially liquefied. Hydrocarbons are less volatile liquefied on the first plates, forming a gas-free form; More volatile hydrocarbons are assembled above and form a kerosene fraction; Even above - the ligrous fraction. The most volatile hydrocarbons extend in the form of vapors from the column and after condensation, form gasoline. Part of the gasoline is supplied back to the column for "irrigation", which contributes to the best mode of operation. (Record in notebook). Gasoline - contains hydrocarbons C5 - C11, boiling in the range from40 0 c to 200 0 s; Ligroin - contains hydrocarbons C8 - C14 with a boiling point of 120 0 ° C to 240 ° C; kerosene- contains hydrocarbons C12 - C18, boiling at a temperature of from180 0 c to 300 0 s; Gasoyl - Contains hydrocarbons C13 - C15, distilled off at 230 ° C to 360 0 C; Lubricating oils - C16 - C28, boiled at a temperature of 350 0 s and above.

After distilling off the oil of light products, a viscous black liquid remains - fuel oil. It is a valuable mixture of hydrocarbons. From the fuel oil, lubricating oils are obtained by additional distillation. An unbeatable part of the fuel oil is called good, which is used in construction and during road asphalting. (Demonstration of the video film). The most valuable fraction of direct distillation of oil is gasoline. However, the yield of this fraction does not exceed 17-20% of the mass of crude oil. There is a problem: how to satisfy the ever-increasing needs of society in automotive and aviation fuel? The decision was found at the end of the 19th century by the Russian engineer Vladimir Grigorievich Shukhov. AT 1891 year he first implemented industrial cracking The kerosene oil fraction, which made it possible to increase the yield of gasoline to 65-70% (in the calculation of crude oil). Only for the development of the process of thermal cracking of petroleum products, grateful mankind gold letters entered the name of this unique person in the history of civilization.

The products obtained as a result of the rectification of oil are subjected to chemical processing, including a number of complex processes, one of them is the cracking of petroleum products (from the English "Schecking" -Roting). There are several types of cracking: thermal, catalytic, high-pressure cracking, recovery. The thermal cracking consists in splitting hydrocarbon molecules with a long chain to shorter under the action of high temperature (470-550 0 C). In the course of this splitting, along with alkanans, alkenes are formed:

Currently catalytic cracking is currently the most common. It is carried out at a temperature of 450-500 0 s, but at a greater speed and allows you to get higher quality gasoline. In conditions of catalytic cracking, along with the reactions of splitting, the reactions of isomerization go, that is, the conversion of the normal structure of the normal structure into branched hydrocarbons.

Isomerization affects the quality of gasoline, since the presence of branched hydrocarbons greatly increases its octane number. Cracking refer to the so-called recycled refining processes. The secondary also includes a number of other catalytic processes, such as reforming. Reforming- This is the aromatization of gasolines, by heating them in the presence of a catalyst, for example, platinum. Under these conditions, alkanes and cycloalkanes are converted into aromatic hydrocarbons, as a result of which the octane number of gasolines is also significantly increased.

Ecology and oil industry

For petrochemical production, the environmental problem is particularly relevant. Oil production is related to energy costs and environmental pollution. A dangerous source of pollution of the World Ocean is the sea oil production, also the world ocean is polluted during oil transportation. Each of us saw on TV the consequences of accidents of an oil tanker. Black, covered with a layer of fuel oil shore, black surf, choking dolphins, birds whose wings are in a viscous fuel oil, people in protective suits that collect oil shovels and vendors. I want to bring the data of a serious environmental catastrophe that occurred in the Kerch Strait in November 2007. 2 thousand tons of petroleum products and about 7 thousand tons of sulfur were in the water. Most of all because of the disaster was injured by Spit Tuzla, which is at the junction of the Black and Azov Seas, and Spit Chushka. After the accident, the fuel oil was donkey on the bottom because of what the petty shell died and the main food of the inhabitants of the sea. The restoration of the ecosystem will take 10 years. More than 15 thousand birds died. Oil liter, hitting the water, spreads over its surface with stains of 100 sq.m. The oil film, although very thin, forms an irresistible barrier on the path of oxygen from the atmosphere into aqueous thickness. As a result, the oxygen and ocean is disturbed "Pants". Plankton's dies, which is the basis of the food chain of the ocean. Currently, oil spots are already covered by about 20% of the world's ocean area, and the area affected by oil pollution is growing. In addition, the oil film is covered with the world ocean, we can observe it on land. For example, in oil fields of Western Siberia per year, oil is shed more than the tanker accommodates - up to 20 million tons. About half of this oil falls on Earth as a result of accidents, the rest is "planned" fountains and leaks when starting well, exploration drilling, pipeline repair. The largest area of \u200b\u200boil pollized land, according to the Committee on environment Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, falls on the Purovsky district.

Natural and passing petroleum gases

Natural gas contains low molecular weight hydrocarbons, the main components are methane. Its content in gas of various deposits ranges from 80% to 97%. In addition to methane - Ethan, propane, butane. Inorganic: nitrogen - 2%; CO2; H2O; H2S, noble gases. With the combustion of natural gas, a lot of heat is distinguished.

According to its properties, natural gas as fuel exceeds even oil, it is more callor. This is the youngest branch of the fuel industry. Gas is even easier to produce and transport. This is the most economical of all kinds of fuel. There are, however, the disadvantages: complex intercontinental gas transportation. Tankers - metapolutions carrying gas in liquefied state are exceptionally complex expensive designs.

It is used as: effective fuel, raw materials in the chemical industry, in the production of acetylene, ethylene, hydrogen, soot, plastics, acetic acid, dyes, medicines, etc. Comfort (oil gases) - natural gases that dissolve in oil and stand out when it mining. Oil gas contains less methane, but more propane, butane and other higher hydrocarbons. And where is the gas mined?

More than 70 countries of the world have industrial gas reserves. Moreover, as in the case of oil, developing countries have very large reserves. But gas production leads mainly developed countries. They have opportunities for its use or a way to sell gas to other countries that are with them on one continent. International trade of gas is less active than trade in oil. The international market comes about 15% of the gas produced in the world. Almost 2/3 of global gas production is given by Russia and the United States. Undoubtedly the leading region of gas production not only our country, but also in the world is Yamalo-Nenetsky autonomous DistrictWhere this industry has been developing for 30 years. Our town New Urengoy The right is recognized by the gas capital. The largest deposits include Urengoy, Yamburg, Bear, Polar. The Urengoy deposit is included in the Guinness Book of Records. The reserves and mining of the deposit are unique. Explored reserves exceed 10 trillion. M 3, from the moment of operation, 6 trillion was already produced. m 3. In 2008, Gazprom plans to get 598 billion m 3 "Blue Gold" at the Urengoisk field.

Gas and ecology

The imperfection of oil and gas production technology, their transportation causes constant combustion of gas volume on the heat-aggregates of compressor stations and in torches. The share of compressor stations accounts for about 30% of these emissions. On the torch installations, about 450 thousand tons of natural and associated gas is burned annually, and more than 60 thousand tons of pollutants come to the atmosphere.

Oil, gas, stone coal is a valuable raw material for the chemical industry. In the near future, they will be found replacement in the fuel and energy complex of our country. Currently, scientists are looking for ways to use the energy of the sun and wind, nuclear fuel in order to fully replace oil. The most promising type of fuel of the future is hydrogen. Reducing oil use in the heat energy - the path is not only more rational use, but also to the preservation of this raw material for future generations. Hydrocarbon raw materials should be used only in the processing industry to obtain a variety of products. Unfortunately, the situation does not change until, and up to 94% of the oil produced serves as fuel. D. I. Mendeleev wisely said: "To burn oil is the same thing that to stir the oven the oven."

During the lesson, you can learn the topic " Natural sources hydrocarbons. Oil refining". More than 90% of all energy consumed by humanity is currently produced from fossil natural organic compounds. You will learn about natural minerals (natural gas, oil, stone corner), about what is happening with oil after its prey.

Topic: limiting hydrocarbons

Lesson: natural sources of hydrocarbons

About 90% of the energy consumed by modern civilization is formed when burning natural combustible fossil - natural gas, oil and stone coal.

Russia is a country rich in reserves of natural combustible fossils. Large oil and natural gas reserves are in Western Siberia and Ural. Stone coal is mined in Kuznetsk, South Yakut basins and other regions.

Natural gas It consists on an average of 95% of methane.

In addition to methane, natural gas in different fields contain nitrogen, carbon dioxide, helium, hydrogen sulfide, as well as other light alkanes - ethane, propane and butanes.

Natural gas is mined from underground deposits, where it is under great pressure. Methane and other hydrocarbons are formed from organic substances of plant and animal origin in their decomposition without air access. Methane is constantly formed and currently as a result of microorganisms.

Methane detected on the planets Solar system And their satellites.

Pure methane does not smell. However, the gas used in everyday life has a characteristic unpleasant smell. So smell special additives - mercaptans. The smell of mercaptans allows you to detect domestic gas leakage on time. Mixtures of methane with air are explosive In a wide range of ratios - from 5 to 15% of gas in volume. Therefore, when you feel the smell of gas in the room, it is impossible not only to light the fire, but also use the electrical switches. The slightest spark is capable of calling an explosion.

Fig. 1. Oil of different deposits

Oil - thick liquid similar to oil. Its color - from light yellow to brown and black.

Fig. 2. Oil deposits

Oil of different deposits varies greatly in composition. Fig. 1. The bulk of oil is hydrocarbons containing 5 or more carbon atoms. Basically, these hydrocarbons belong to the limit, i.e. Alkanes. Fig. 2.

It also includes organic compounds containing sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen, oil contains water and inorganic impurities.

In oil dissolved gases that are allocated during its production - petroleum passing gases. This is methane, ethane, propane, butanes with impurities of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide.

Coal, like oil, is a complicated mixture. Carbon in it accounts for 80-90%. The rest is hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen and some other elements. In a brown coal The proportion of carbon and organic substances is lower than in the stone. Even fewer organic combustible shale.

In industry, stone coal is heated to 900-1100 0 C without air access. This process is called coksovania. As a result, coke with high carbon content, coke gas and coal resin, is obtained for metallurgy. Many organic substances are distinguished from gas and resin. Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Coke furnace device

Natural gas and oil are essential sources of raw materials for the chemical industry. Oil in the form, it is mined, or "crude oil", it is difficult to use even as fuel. Therefore, crude oil is divided into fractions (from the English. "Fraction" is "part"), using differences in boiling points of its substances.

The method of separation of oil based on different boiling temperatures of the components of its hydrocarbons is called distillation or distillation. Fig. four.

Fig. 4. Oil refining products

The fraction that is distilled from about 50 to 180 0 s, called gasoline.

Kerosene Pins at temperatures 180-300 0 S.

Thick black residue not containing volatile substances is called fuel oil.

There are also a number of intermediate fractions boiling in narrower ranges - petroleum esters (40-70 0 s and 70-100 0 s), White spirit (149-204 ° C), as well as gas oil (200-500 0 s). They are used as solvents. The fuel oil can be overtaken under reduced pressure, in this way, lubricating oils and paraffin are obtained. Solid residue from distillation fuel oil - asphalt. It is used to produce road surfaces.

Recycling of passing oil gases is a separate industry and allows you to obtain a number of valuable products.

Summing up lesson

During the lesson, you studied the topic "Natural sources of hydrocarbons. Oil refining". More than 90% of all energy consumed by humanity is currently produced from fossil natural organic compounds. You learned about natural fossils (natural gas, oil, stone corner), about what is happening with oil after its prey.

List of references

1. Rudzitis G.E. Chemistry. Basics of general chemistry. Grade 10: Tutorial for general educational institutions: Basic level / G. E. Rudzitis, F.G. Feldman. - 14th edition. - M.: Enlightenment, 2012.

2. Chemistry. Grade 10. Profile level: studies. For general education. institutions / V.V. Eremin, N.E. Kuzmenko, V.V. Lunin et al. - M.: Drop, 2008. - 463 p.

3. Chemistry. Grade 11. Profile level: studies. For general education. institutions / V.V. Eremin, N.E. Kuzmenko, V.V. Lunin and others. - M.: Drop, 2010. - 462 p.

4. Homchenko G.P., Khomchenko I.G. Collection of tasks in chemistry for entering universities. - 4th ed. - M.: RIA "New Wave": Publisher of Deaders, 2012. - 278 p.

Homework

1. №№ 3, 6 (p. 74) Rudzitis G.E., Feldman F.G. Chemistry: Organic chemistry. Grade 10: Tutorial for general education institutions: Basic level / G. E. Rudzitis, F.G. Feldman. - 14th edition. - M.: Enlightenment, 2012.

2. What is the difference between the passing oil gas from natural gas?

3. How is the distillation of oil?

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted by http://www.allbest.ru/

Moscow Committee Education

Southeast District Office

Secondary school №506 with in-depth study of the economy

Natural sources of hydrocarbons, their receipt and application

Kovkin Igor 11b.

Tishchenko Vitaly 11B.

Chapter 1. Geochemistry of oil and intelligence combustible fossils

1.1 The origin of combustible fossils

1.2 Gasonephster rocks

Chapter 2. Natural Sources

Chapter 3. Industrial production of hydrocarbons

Chapter 4. Oil Recycling

4.1 Fractional distillation

4.2 cracking

4.3 Reforming

4.4 Cleaning from sulfur

Chapter 5. Applications of hydrocarbons

5.1 Alkana

5.2 Alkenes

5.3 Alkina

Chapter 6. Analysis of the state of the oil industry

Chapter 7. Features and main trends in the activities of the oil industry

List of used literature

Chapter 1. Geochemistry of oil and intelligence combustible fossils

1 .1 The origin of flammable fossils

The first theories in which the principles were considered that determine the oil deposits were usually limited mainly to the issues on the places of its accumulation. However, over the past 20 years it has become clear that it is necessary to figure out why, when and in what quantities, oil formation occurred in a particular basin, and also to understand and establish, as a result of which processes it was emerged, migrated and accumulated. This information is absolutely necessary to improve the effectiveness of oil exploration.

The formation of hydrocarbon fossils, according to modern views, occurred as a result of the occurrence of a complex sequence of geochemical processes (see Fig. 1) inside the initial gas-bearing rock rocks. In these processes, composite parts of various biological systems (substances of natural origin) were converted into hydrocarbons and to a lesser extent into polar compounds with different thermodynamic stability - as a result of precipitation of substances of natural origin and the subsequent overlapping of sedimentary rocks, under the influence of high temperature and increased pressure in surface Layers of the earth's crust. Primary migration of liquid and gaseous products from the initial gas-mounted layer and their subsequent secondary migration (through support horizons, shifts, etc.) into porous oil saturated rocks leads to the formation of hydrocarbon deposits, the further migration of which is prevented by locking deposits between non-porous layers of rocks .

In the extracts of organic matter, compounds with the same chemical structure are detected from sedimentary rocks of biogenic origin, which compounds derived from oil. For geochemistry, some of these compounds are particularly important, which are considered "biological labels" ("chemical fossils"). Such hydrocarbons have a lot in common with compounds encountered in biological systems (for example, with lipids, pigments and metabolites), of which oil formation occurred. These compounds not only demonstrate the biogenic origin of natural hydrocarbons, but also allow to obtain a very important information On gas-mounted rocks, as well as on the nature of maturation and origin, migration and biodegradation, which led to the formation of specific gas and oil deposits.

Figure 1 Geochemical processes leading to the formation of fossil hydrocarbons.

1. 2 GasHouseTright rocks

A small-scale sedimentary rock is considered a gas-rigid rock formation, which, with natural precipitation, led or could lead to the formation and isolating significant amounts of oil and (or) gas. The classification of such rocks is based on the content and type of organic matter, the state of its metamorphic evolution (chemical transformations occurring at temperatures of approximately 50-180 ° C), as well as the nature and amount of hydrocarbons that can be obtained from it. The organic substance Kerogen Kerogen (from Greek. Keros, which means "wax", and gene, which means "processing") - the organic substance is scattered in rocks, insoluble in organic dozerners, non-oxidizing mineral acids and bases. In sedimentary rocks of biogenic origin, it can be detected in a wide variety of forms, but it can be divided into four main types.

1) Liputinites - have a very high hydrogen content, but low oxygen content; Their composition is due to the presence of aliphatic carbon chains. It is assumed that liputinites were formed mainly from algae (usually subjected to bacterial decomposition). They have a high ability to transform into oil.

2) Extites - have a high hydrogen content (however, lower than that of liputinites), rich in aliphatic chains and saturated naphthenes (alice-chickel hydrocarbons), as well as aromatic cycles and oxygen-containing functional groups. This organic substance is formed from such plant materials as disputes, pollen, cuticles and other structural parts of the plants. Eczinites have a good ability to transform into oil and gas condensate condensate - a hydrocarbon mixture, gaseous in the field, but a horse-sensing fluid when removing to the surface. , and at the highest stages of metamorphic evolution and gas.

3) Vitrshita - have a low hydrogen content, high oxygen content and consist mainly of aromatic structures with short aliphatic chains associated with oxygen-containing functional groups. They are formed from structured wood (lignocellulosic) materials and have limited ability to turn into oil, but good ability to turn into gas.

4) Inertinites - These are black opaque chip rocks (with a high carbon content and low content of hydrogen), which were formed from strongly changed wood precursors. They do not have the ability to turn into oil and gas.

The main factors for which the gas-generated rock is recognized is the kerogen content in it, the type of organic matter in the kelogen and the stage of the metamorphic evolution of this organic matter. Those that contain 2-4% of the organic matter of this type, from which the corresponding hydrocarbons may be released and released and release are considered good gas-native rocks. With beneficial geochemical conditions, oil formation may occur from sedimentary rocks containing organic matter like liputinite and exincident. The formation of gas fields usually occurs in rock rocks rich in a shower or as a result of thermal cracking of the originally formed oil.

As a result of the subsequent burial of the precipitation of the organic matter under the upper layers of sedimentary rocks, this substance is exposed to increasingly high temperatures, which leads to thermal decomposition of kelogen and the formation of oil and gas. Oil formation in quantities of interest to industrial development of the field occurs under certain conditions over time and temperature (lowering depth), and the formation time is the greater, the lower the temperature (it is not difficult to understand if we assume that the reaction proceeds by the first order equation and It has an Arrhenius dependence on temperature). For example, the same amount of oil, which was formed at a temperature of 100 ° C of approximately 20 million years, should be formed at a temperature of 90 ° C for 40 million years, and at a temperature of 80 ° C - for 80 million years. The rate of formation of hydrocarbons from Kerogen is roughly doubled by increasing the temperature for every 10 ° C. However, the chemical composition of Kerogen. It can be extremely diverse, and therefore the specified relationship between the ripening time of oil and the temperature of this process can only be considered as a basis for approximate estimates.

Modern geochemical studies show that in the continental shelf of the Northern Sea, the increase in depth every 100 m is accompanied by an increase in temperature of approximately 3 ° C, and this means that the rich sedimentary rocks have formed liquid hydrocarbons at a depth of 2500-4000 m for 50-80 millions of years. Easy oil and condensates, apparently, were formed at a depth of 4000-5000 m, and methane (dry gas) - at a depth of more than 5000 m.

Chapter 2. Natural Sources

Natural sources of hydrocarbons are combustible fossils - oil and gas, coal and peat. Raw oil and gas deposits arose 100-200 million years ago from microscopic sea plants and animals that were included in sedimentary rocks formed at the bottom of the sea, in contrast to this coal and peat began to form 340 million years ago from plants that spoke on land.

Natural gas and crude oil are usually found together with water in oil-bearing layers located between the layers of rocks (Fig. 2). The term "natural gas" also apply to gases that are formed in natural conditions As a result of the decomposition of coal. Natural gas and crude oil are developed on all continents, with the exception of Antarctica. The largest producers Natural gas in the world is Russia, Algeria, Iran and the United States. The largest producers of crude oil are Venezuela, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Iran.

Natural gas consists mainly of methane (Table 1).

Crude oil is an oily liquid, the color of which can be the most varied - from dark brown or green to almost colorless. It contains a large number of alkanov. Among them are unbranched alkanes, branched alkanes and cycloalkanes with the number of carbon atoms from five to 40. The industrial name of these cycloalkanes is based on. In crude oil, it also contains approximately 10% of aromatic hydrocarbons, as well as a small number of other compounds containing sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen.

Figure 2 Natural gas and crude oil are detected in traps between layers of rocks.

Table 1 Composition of Natural Gas

Coalit is an oldest source of energy with which Humanity is familiar. It is a mineral (Fig. 3), which was formed from a vegetable matter in the process metamorphism.Metamorphic is the rock rocks whose composition has been changed under high pressures, as well as high temperatures. The product of the first stage in the process of coal formation is peat,which is a decomposed organic matter. Coal is formed from peat after it is covered by sedimentary rocks. These sedimentary rocks are called overloaded. Overloaded precipitates reduce the moisture content in the peat.

Three criteria are used in the classification of coal: purity(determined by the relative content of carbon in percent); a type(determined by the composition of the initial vegetable matter); crowded(Depends on the degree of metamorphism).

Table 2. Carbon content in some types of fuel and their calorific value

The lowest view of fossil coal are brown coaland lignite(Table 2). They are closest to the taper and are characterized by a relatively low carbon content and high moisture content. Coalit is characterized by a smaller moisture content and is widely used in industry. The most dry and solid coal grade is anthracite.It is used to heating housing and cooking.

AT recent times Thanks technical achievements becomes more and more economical coal gasification.Coal gasification products include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, methane and nitrogen. They are used as a gaseous fuel or as raw materials for various chemical products and fertilizers.

Coal, as described below, serves as an important source of raw materials to obtain aromatic compounds.

Figure 3 Variant of a molecular model of low-grade coal. Coal is a complicated mixture chemical substances, which includes carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, as well as small amounts of nitrogen, sulfur and impurities of other elements. In addition, the composition of coal, depending on its variety, includes a variety of moisture and various minerals.

Figure 4 hydrocarbons found in biological systems.

Hydrocarbons are found in nature not only in combustible fossils, but also in some materials of biological origin. Natural rubber is an example of a natural hydrocarbon polymer. The rubber molecule consists of thousands of structural units, which are methylbuta-1,3-diode (isopren); Its structure is schematically shown in Fig. 4. Methylbuta-1,3-dien has the following structure:

Natural rubber. Approximately 90% of the natural rubber, which is currently produced worldwide, is obtained from the Brazilian rubberous wood Hevea Brasiliensis, cultivated mainly in the Equatorial Asian countries. The juice of this tree, which is a latex (colloidal aqueous solution of polymer), is collected from cuts made by a knife on the crust. Latex contains approximately 30% rubber. Its tiny particles weighed in water. Juice is drained into aluminum containers, where the acid forcing the rubber is added to coagulate.

Many other natural compounds also contain isoprene structural fragments. For example, lemon can contain two isoprene fragments. Limonen is the main component of the oils extracted from citrus peel, such as lemons and oranges. This connection belongs to the class of compounds called terus. Terpes contain 10 carbon atoms in their molecules (C 10 connections) and include two isoprene fragments connected to each other sequentially ("head to tail"). Compounds with four isoprene fragments (C 20 connections) are called diterpets, and with six isoprene fragments -titerpetes (with 30 connections). Squalen, which is contained in acla liver oil, is triterpene. Tetraterpene (with 40 connections) contain eight isoprene fragments. Tetrantly contained in pygments of fats of plant and animal origin. Their painting is due to the presence of a long conjugate double ties system. For example, B-carotene is responsible for the characteristic orange color of carrots.

Chapter 3. Industrial production of hydrocarbons

Alkans, alkenes, alkins and arena are obtained by refining oil (see below). Coal is also an important source of raw materials to produce hydrocarbons. For this purpose, the stone coal is heated without air access in the retort furnace. As a result, coke is obtained, coal tar, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide and coal gas. This process is called destructive distillation of coal. By further fractional distillation of coal tar, various arena are obtained (Table 3). When coke interacts with steam, water gas is obtained:

Table 3 Some aromatic compounds obtained by fractional distillation of coal tar (resins)

From the water gas using the Fischer-Tropsch process you can get alkanes and alkenes. For this, water gas is mixed with hydrogen and passed over the surface of the iron, cobalt or nickel catalyst at elevated temperatures and under pressure of 200-300 atm.

The Fischer - Tropsch process also allows methanol from water gas and other organic compounds containing oxygen:

This reaction is carried out in the presence of a catalyst from chromium oxide (III) at a temperature of 300 ° C and under a pressure of 300 atm.

In industrially underdeveloped countries, such hydrocarbons like methane and ethylene are increasingly obtained from biomass. Biogas consists mainly of methane. Ethylene can be obtained by dehydrating ethanol, which is formed in fermentation processes.

The calcium dicarbide is also obtained from coke, heating its mixture with calcium oxide at temperatures above 2000 ° C in electric furnace:

In the interaction of dicarbide calcium with water, the formation of acetylene occurs. Such a process opens another opportunity for the synthesis of unsaturated hydrocarbons from coke.

Chapter 4. Oil Recycling

Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and other connections. In this form, it is little used. First, it is processed into other products that have practical applications. Therefore, crude oil is transported by tankers or with pipelines to refinery.

Oil refining includes a number of physical and chemical processes: fractional distillation, cracking, reforming and sulfur cleaning.

4.1 Fractional distillation

Crude oil is separated into a variety of components, exposing it simple, fractional and vacuum distillation. The nature of these processes, as well as the number and composition of the resulting oil fractions depend on the composition of crude oil and on the requirements imposed on its various factions.

From crude oil, primarily remove the gas impurities dissolved in it, exposing it to a simple distillation. Then oil is subjected primary distillationAs a result, it is divided into gas, light and middle factions and fuel oil. Further fractional distillation of light and middle fractions, as well as vacuum distillation of fuel oil leads to the formation of a large number of fractions. In tab. 4 shows the boiling temperature ranges and the composition of various oil fractions, and in Fig. 5 shows the diagram of the device of the primary distillation (distillation) column for distillation of oil. We now turn to the description of the properties of individual oil fractions.

Table 4 Typical Fractions Distillation of Oil

	Boiling temperature, ° С	The number of carbon atoms in the molecule


Ligroin (Nafta)

Lubricant and wax

Figure 5 Primary distillation of crude oil.

Gas fraction. Gases obtained in the processing of oil are the simplest unbranched alkanes: ethane, propane and butanes. This fraction has an industrial name for oil refinery (oil) gas. It is removed from crude oil before subjected to its primary distillation, or separated from the gasoline fraction after the primary distillation. The oil refined gas is used as a gaseous fuel or subjected to a liquefaction under pressure to obtain liquefied petroleum gas. The latter goes on sale as a liquid fuel or used as raw materials to get ethylene on cracking installations.

Gasoline fraction. This fraction is used to produce various varieties of motor fuel. It is a mixture of various hydrocarbons, including unbranched and branched alkanans. Features of the burning of unbranched alkanes do not perfectly correspond to internal combustion engines. Therefore, the gasoline fraction is often subjected to thermal reforming in order to turn unbranched molecules into branched. Before use, this fraction is usually mixed with branched alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatic compounds obtained from other fractions by catalytic cracking or reforming.

The quality of gasoline as a motor fuel is determined by its octane number. It indicates the percentage volumetric content of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isochastane) in a mixture of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane and heptane (Alcan with a unbranched chain), which has the same detonation characteristics of combustion, as well as the gasoline test.

Bad engine fuel has a zero octane number, and good fuel-octane number 100. The octane number of the gasoline fraction obtained from crude oil usually does not exceed 60. The characteristics of the combustion of gasoline are improved when an anti-knock additive is added to it, which uses Tetraethylswin (IV) , PB (C 2 H 5) 4. The tetraethylsvinets is a colorless liquid, which is obtained by heating chloroethane with a alloy of sodium and lead:

When burning gasoline containing this additive, particles of lead and lead oxide (II) are formed. They slow down certain stages of gasoline fuel combustion and thereby prevent his detonation. Together with Tetraethylswin, 1,2-dibromoethane add to gasoline. He reacts with lead and lead (II), forming lead bromide (II). Since lead bromide (II) is a volatile connection, it is removed from the automotive engine with exhaust gases.

Ligroin (Nafta). This fraction of oil distillation is obtained between gasoline and kerosene fractions. It consists mainly of alkanes (Table 5).

Ligroin is also prepared with a fractional distillation of a light oil fraction obtained from a coal tar (Table 3). Ligroin from coal resin has a high content of aromatic hydrocarbons.

The wise part of the ligroin derived from the distillation of oil is subjected to reforming for transformation into gasoline. However, its significant part is used as raw materials to obtain other chemicals.

Table 5 Hydrocarbon composition of the Ligroin fraction of typical Middle Eastern oil

Kerosene. The kerosene fraction of oil distillation consists of aliphatic alkanes, naphthalenes and aromatic hydrocarbons. Part of it is purified for use as a source of saturated paraffin hydrocarbons, and the other part is cracked in order to transform into gasoline. However, the main part of kerosene is used as a fuel for jet aircraft.

Gasoyl. This fraction of oil refining is known as diesel fuel. Part of it is subjected to cracking to obtain petrocation gas and gasoline. However, mainly gas oil is used as a fuel for diesel engines. In the diesel engine, the fuel ignition is made as a result of pressure increase. Therefore, they cost without spark plugs. Gasoyl is also used as fuel for industrial furnaces.

Mazut. This fraction remains after removing all other fractions from oil. Most of it is used as a liquid fuel for heating boilers and obtaining steam on industrial enterprises, power plants and in ship engines. However, some part of the fuel oil is subjected to vacuum distillation to obtain lubricating oils and paraffin wax. Lubricating oils are subjected to further purification by extracting the solvent. Dark viscous material remaining after the vacuum distillation of fuel oil is called "bitumen" or "asphalt". It is used to make road surfaces.

We told about how the fractional and vacuum distillation along with the extraction of solvents makes it possible to divide crude oil to various practically important fractions. All these processes are physical. But chemical processes are also used for oil refining. These processes can be divided into two types: cracking and reforming.

4.2 cracking

In this process, large molecules of high-boiling fractions of crude oil are split into smaller molecules from which low-boiling fractions consist. Cracking is necessary because the needs in low-boiling fractions of oil - especially in gasoline - are often ahead of the possibility of their preparation by fractional distillation of crude oil.

As a result of cracking, in addition to gasoline, alkenes are also obtained, necessary as raw materials for the chemical industry. The cracking in turn is divided into three most important types: hydrocracking, catalytic cracking and thermal cracking.

Hydrocrene. This type of cracking allows us to convert high-boiling oil fractions (waxes and heavy oils) into low-boiling fractions. The hydrocracking process is that the fraction subjected to cracking is heated under very high pressure in the atmosphere of hydrogen. This leads to the rupture of large molecules and the addition of hydrogen to their fragments. As a result, saturated small molecules are formed. Hydrocracking is used to produce gas oil and gasolines from heavier fractions.

Catalytic cracking. This method leads to the formation of a mixture of saturated and unsaturated products. Catalytic cracking is carried out at relatively low temperatures, and a mixture of silica and alumina is used as a catalyst. In this way, high-quality gasoline and unsaturated hydrocarbons from heavy oil fractions are obtained.

Thermal cracking. Large hydrocarbon molecules contained in heavy oil fractions can be split into smaller molecules by heating these fractions to temperatures exceeding their boiling point. As with a catalytic cracking, in this case a mixture of saturated and unsaturated products are obtained. For example,

The thermal cracking is particularly important for the production of unsaturated hydrocarbons, such as ethylene and propacted. For thermal cracking, steam cracking installations are used. In these installations, hydrocarbon raw materials are first heated in the furnace to 800 ° C, and then diluted with steam. This increases the yield of alkenes. After the major molecules of the original hydrocarbons split into smaller molecules, the hot gases are cooled to approximately 400ss water, which turns into a compressed pair. The cooled gases are then enrolled in a distillation (fractional) column, where they are cooled to 40 ° C. The condensation of larger molecules leads to the formation of gasoline and gas oil. The non-projected gases are compressed in the compressor, which is powered by a compressed steam obtained at the gas cooling stage. The final separation of products is made in fractional distillation columns.

Table 6 The yield of cracking products with a ferry from various hydrocarbons (wt.%)

Products	Hydrocarbon raw materials






Bouta - 1.3 - Dien

Liquid fuel

AT european countries The main raw material for the production of unsaturated hydrocarbons with the help of catalytic cracking is Ligroin. In the United States, Ethan is served by the main raw material for this purpose. It is easily obtained on refineries as one of the components of liquefied petroleum gas or natural gas, as well as from oil wells as one of the components of natural concomitant gases. Propane, butane and gas oil are used as a raw material for cracking with steam. Cracking products Ethane and Ligrina are indicated in Table. 6.

Cracking reactions proceed through a radical mechanism.

4.3 Reforming

In contrast to cracking processes, which are splitting larger molecules into less large, reforming processes lead to a change in the structure of molecules or to combine them into larger molecules. The reforming is used in the processing of crude oil to convert low-quality gasoline fractions into high-quality fractions. In addition, it is used to obtain raw materials for the petrochemical industry. Reforming processes can be divided into three types: isomerization, alkylation, as well as cyclization and aromatization.

Isomerization. In this process, the molecule of one isomer is subjected to regrouping to the formation of another isomer. The isomerization process is very important to improve the quality of the gasoline fraction obtained after the primary distillation of crude oil. We have already indicated that this fraction contains too much unbranched alkanes. They can be turned into branched alkanes, heating this fraction to 500-600 ° C under a pressure of 20-50 atm. This process is called thermal reforming.

For isomerization of unbranched alkanes can also be applied catalytic Reforming.. For example, butane can be wasomerized, turning it into a 2-methyl propane, with the help of a catalyst from aluminum chloride at a temperature of 100 ° C or higher:

This reaction has an ionic mechanism that is carried out with the participation of carbca-thions.

Alkylation. In this process, alkanes and alkenes, which were formed as a result of cracking, are reunited with the formation of high-grade gasoline. Such alkanes and alkenes usually have from two to four carbon atoms. The process is carried out at low temperatures using a strong acid catalyst, for example sulfuric acid:

This reaction proceeds through the ionic mechanism involving carbcation (CH 3) 3 C +.

Cyclization and aromatization. When passing by gasoline and ligroin fractions obtained as a result of the primary distillation of crude oil, above the surface of such catalysts, as platinum or molybdenum oxide (VI), on a substrate from aluminum oxide, at a temperature of 500 ° C and under pressure 10-20 atm, cyclization occurs with Subsequent flavors of hexane and other alkanes with longer unbranched chains:

Decoration of hydrogen from hexane, and then from cyclohexane called dehydrization. The reforming of this type is essentially one of the cracking processes. It is called platforming, catalytic reforming or just reforming. In some cases, hydrogen is introduced into the reaction system to prevent full decomposition of alkane to carbon and maintain the activity of the catalyst. In this case, the process is called hydroforming.

4.4 Cleaning from sulfur

Crude oil contains hydrogen sulfide and other compounds containing sulfur. The sulfur content in oil depends on the deposit. Oil, which is obtained from the continental shelf of the North Sea, has a low sulfur content. With distillation of crude oil, organic compounds containing sulfur are cleaved, and as a result an additional amount of hydrogen sulfide is formed. The hydrogen sulfide falls into the oil refinery or the fraction of liquefied petroleum gas. Since hydrogen sulfide has the properties of weak acid, it can be removed by processing petroleum products by any weak base. From the sulfide thus obtained, it is possible to remove sulfur, burning hydrogen sulfide in the air and passing combustion products above the surface of the catalyst from aluminum oxide at 400 ° C. The total reaction of this process is described by the equation

Approximately 75% of the entire elemental sulfur, currently used by the non-socialist industry, is extracted from crude oil and natural gas.

Chapter 5. Applications of hydrocarbons

Approximately 90% of the total oil produced is used as fuel. Despite the fact that the part of the oil that is used to produce petrochemical products, small, these products are very important. Many thousands of organic compounds are obtained from oil distillation products (Table 7). They, in turn, are used to receive thousands of products that satisfy not only urgent needs. modern society, but also needs comfort (Fig. 6).

Table 7 Hydrocarbon raw materials for chemical industry

	Chemical products

	Methanol, acetic acid, chlorometan, ethylene
	Ethyl chloride, tetraethylsvinets (IV)
	Methanal, ethanal

	Polyethylene, polychloroethylene (polyvinyl chloride), polyesters, ethanol, ethanal (acetaldehyde)
	Polypropylene, propanone (acetone), propaneal, propane - 1,2,3-triol (glycerin), proprenitril (acrylonitrile), epoxypropane
	Synthetic rubber

Acetylene	Chloroethylene (vinyl chloride), 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane

	(1-methyl) benzene, phenol, polyphenylethylene

Although various groups of chemical products indicated in Fig. 6, in a broad sense, denoted as petrochemical products, since they are obtained from oil, it should be noted that many organic products, in particular aromatic compounds, are obtained from a coal resin and other sources of raw materials. And yet approximately 90% of all raw materials for the organic industry are obtained from oil.

Below will be considered some typical examples showing the use of hydrocarbons as raw materials for the chemical industry.

Figure 6 of the use of petrochemical products.

5.1 Alkana

Methane is not only one of the most important types of fuel, but also has many other applications. It is used to obtain the so-called synthesis Gaza, or Singhaz. Like water gas, which is obtained from coke and steam, synthesis gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. Synthesis gas is obtained, heating methane or ligroin approximately 750 ° C under pressure of about 30 atm in the presence of a nickel catalyst:

Synthesis gas is used to produce hydrogen in the process of the gaber (ammonia synthesis).

Synthesis gas is also used to produce methanol and other organic compounds. In the process of producing methanol, the synthesis gas is passed above the surface of the catalyst from zinc and copper oxide at a temperature of 250 ° C and a pressure of 50-100 atm, which leads to the reaction

Synthesis gas used to carry out this process should be carefully cleaned of impurities.

Methanol is not difficult to subjected to catalytic decomposition, in which synthesis gas is obtained again. It is very convenient to use for transportation of synthesis gas. Methanol is one of the most important types of raw materials for the petrochemical industry. It is used, for example, to obtain acetic acid:

The catalyst for this process is the soluble anion complex Rhodium. This method is used for industrial preparation of acetic acid, the need for which is superior to the scale of obtaining the fermentation process.

Rhodium soluble compounds may become used in the future as homogeneous catalysts for the process of obtaining ethane-1,2-diola from synthesis gas:

This reaction occurs at a temperature of 300 ° C and a pressure of about 500-1000 atm. Currently, such a process is economically unprofitable. The product of this reaction (its trivial name - ethylene glycol) is used as antifreeze and for obtaining different polyesters, such as terrenylene.

Methane is also used to obtain chloromets, such as trichloro-methane (chloroform). Chloromethane have a variety of applications. For example, chloromethane is used in the process of obtaining silicones.

Finally, methane is increasingly used to obtain acetylene

This reaction proceeds at approximately 1500 ° C. To heat methane to such a temperature, it is burned under conditions of limited air access.

Ethan also has a number of important applications. It is used in the process of obtaining chloroethane (ethyl chloride). As mentioned above, ethyl chloride is used to obtain tetraethylswin (IV). In the United States, Ethan is an important raw material for producing ethylene (Table 6).

Propane plays an important role in the industrial receipt of aldehydes, such as methanal (ant aldehyde) and ethannel (acetic aldehyde). These substances are particularly important in the production of plastics. Bhutan is used to obtain BUT-1,3-Deeien, which is described below, is used to produce a synthetic rubber.

5.2 Alkenes

Ethylene. One of the most important alkenes and in general one of the most important products of the petrochemical industry is ethylene. It is raw material for many plastics. We list them.

Polyethylene. Polyethylene is an ethylene polymerization product:

Polychloroethylene. This polymer has another name of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). It is obtained from chloroethylene (vinyl chloride), which in turn is obtained from ethylene. Total reaction:

1,2-dichloroethane is obtained in the form of liquid or gas, using zinc chloride as catalyst or iron (III) chloride.

When 1,2-dichloroethane heated to a temperature of 500 ° C under a pressure of 3 atm in the presence of pumice, chloroethylene is formed (vinyl chloride)

Another method of obtaining chloroethylene is based on heating the mixture of ethylene, chloro-hydrogen and oxygen up to 250 ° C in the presence of copper chloride (II) (catalyst):

Polyester fiber. An example of such a fiber is terrile. It is obtained from ethane-1,2-diola, which, in turn, is synthesized from epoxyethane (ethylene oxide) as follows:

Ethan-1,2-diol (ethylene glycol) is also used as antifreeze and to obtain synthetic detergents.

Ethanol is obtained by ethylene hydration, using phosphoric acid as a catalyst on a silica carrier:

Ethanol is used to obtain ethannel (acetaldehyde). In addition, it is used as a solvent for varnishes and polishes, as well as in the cosmetic industry.

Finally, ethylene is used even to obtain chloroethane, which was noted above, is used for the manufacture of tetraethylswin (IV) - anti-knock additive to gasoline.

Propen. Propane (propylene), like ethylene, is used to synthesize a variety of chemical products. Many of them are used in the production of plastics and rubber.

Polypropen. Polypropen is a propacate polymerization product:

Propanone and propenal. Propanone (acetone) is widely used as a solvent, and in addition, it is used in the production of plastics known as Plexiglass (polymethyl methacrylate). Propanone is obtained from (1-methyl ethyl) benzene or from propane-2-ol. The latter is obtained from proppan as follows:

The oxidation of propene in the presence of catalyst from copper oxide (II) at a temperature of 350 ° C leads to the production of propenyl (acrylic aldehyde): oil processing hydrocarbon

Propane-1,2,3-triol. Propane-2-Ol, hydrogen peroxide and propenal obtained in the process described above can be used to obtain propane-1,2,3-triol (glycerin):

Glycerin is used in the production of cellophane film.

Propennitril (acrylonitrile). This compound is used to produce synthetic fibers, rubbers and plastics. It is obtained by passing a mixture of propulsion, ammonia and air above the surface of the molybdate catalyst at a temperature of 450 ° C:

Methylbuta-1,3-dien (isoprene). His polymerization is obtained synthetic rubbers. Isoprene is obtained using the next multistage process:

Epoxypropane Used to obtain polyurethane foams, polyesters and synthetic detergents. It is synthesized as follows:

Booth 1-EN, Booth 2-EN and BUTA-1,2-DIAT Used to obtain synthetic rubbers. If the raw materials are used as raw materials for this process, they are first converted to buta-1,3-diode by dehydrogenation in the presence of a catalyst - a mixture of chromium oxide (W) with aluminum oxide:

5. 3 Alkina

The most important representative of a number of alkinov is ethine (acetylene). Acetylene has numerous applications, for example:

- As a fuel in oxygen-acetylene burners for cutting and welding of metals. When burning acetylene in pure oxygen in its flame, the temperature is developing up to 3000 ° C;

- To obtain chloroethylene (vinyl chloride), although at present the most important raw materials for chloroethylene synthesis becomes ethylene (see above).

- To obtain a solvent of 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethan.

5.4 Arena

Benzole and methylbenzene (toluene) are obtained in large quantities in the processing of crude oil. Since methylbenzene is obtained even in their flavors than necessary, part of it is converted to benzene. For this purpose, a mixture of methylbenzene with hydrogen is passed above the surface of the platinum catalyst on a carrier of aluminum oxide at a temperature of 600 ° C under pressure:

This process is called hydroalcling.

Benzene is used as a starting raw material for obtaining a row of plastics.

(1-methyl ethyl) benzene (Cumol or 2-phenylpropane). It is used to obtain phenol and propanone (acetone). Phenol is used for the synthesis of various rubbers and plastics. Below are three stages of the process of obtaining phenol.

Poly (Phenylethylene) (polystyrene). The monomer of this polymer is phenyl ethylene (styrene). It is obtained from benzene:

Chapter 6. Analysis of the state of the oil industry

Russia's share in world mining of mineral raw materials remains high and amounts to oil 11.6%, on gas - 28.1, coal - 12-14%. In terms of the volume of explored reserves of mineral raw materials, Russia occupies a leading position in the world. With the territory occupied by 10% in the depths of Russia, 12-13% of world oil reserves are concentrated, 35% gas, 12% - coal. In the structure of the mineral resource base of the country, more than 70% of reserves fall on the resources of the fuel and energy complex (oil, gas, coal). The total cost of explored and estimated mineral raw materials is the amount of 28.5 trillion dollars, which is an order of magnitude exceeds the cost of all the privatized real estate of Russia.

Table 8 Fuel and Energy Complex of the Russian Federation

The fuel and energy complex is a support of the domestic economy: the share of the fuel and energy complex in total exports in 1996 will be almost 40% ($ 25 billion). About 35% of all federal budget revenues for 1996 (121 of 347 trillion rubles) are planned to be obtained through the activities of the enterprises of the complex. Feeling the share of the fuel and energy complex in the total volume of commercial products that Russian enterprises plan to be released in 1996 from 968 trillion rubles. Commodity products (in current prices) The share of EEC enterprises will be almost 270 trillion rubles, or more than 27% (Table 8). The TEK remains the largest industrial complex carrying out capital investments (more than 71 trillion rubles. In 1995) and attracting investments (1.2 billion dollars only from the World Bank in the last two years) in the enterprise of all its industries.

The oil industry of the Russian Federation has developed extensively for a long period. This was achieved by opening and commissioning in the 50s-1970s of large highly productive deposits in the Urals-Volga region and Western Siberia, as well as the construction of new and expansion of existing refineries. High productivity of deposits allowed with minimal specific capital investments and relatively low material and technical resources to increasing oil production at 20-25 million tons per year. However, at the same time, the development of deposits was carried out in an unacceptable high pace (from 6 to 12% of the selection from the initial stocks), and all these years in oil-producing areas, infrastructure and housing and domestic construction were seriously lagging behind. In 1988, the maximum amount of oil and gas condensate was mined in Russia - 568.3 million tons, or 91% of the public oil production. The depths of the territory of Russia and the adjacent waters of the seas contain about 90% of the explored oil reserves of all republics that were previously part of the USSR. Around the world, the mineral resource base is developing under the expansion scheme of reproduction. That is, it is necessary to transmit new depositors for 10-15% more than they produce every year. It is necessary to maintain the balance of the structure of production so that the industry does not experience raw materials hunger. During the reforms, the issue of investments in geological exploration arose sharply. At the development of one million tons of oil requires investments in the amount of two to five million US dollars. Moreover, these funds will give return only in 3-5 years. Meanwhile, to replenish the fall in production, it is necessary to annually master 250-300 million tons of oil. Over the past five years, 324 oil and gas fields are explored, 70-80 deposits were commissioned. On a geology in 1995, only 0.35% of GDP was spent (in the former USSR, these costs were three times higher). On the products of geologists - explored deposits - there is a deferred demand. However, in 1995, the geological service still managed to stop the decline in production in its industry. The volumes of deep exploration drilling in 1995 increased by 9% compared with 1994 out of 5.6 trillion rubles of financing 1.5 trillion rubles Geologists received centrally. In 1996, the budget of Roskomnedra is 14 trillion rubles, of which 3 trillion are centralized investments. This is only a quarter of investments. former USSR in the geology of Russia.

The raw material base of Russia, subject to the formation of relevant economic conditions for the development of geological exploration, can provide for a relatively long period of production required to meet the needs of the country in oil. It should be borne in mind that in the Russian Federation after the seventies, not a single large high-productive field was opened, and the reserved reserves in their condications deteriorate sharply. For example, according to the geological conditions, the average flow rate of one new well in the Tyumen region fell from 138 tons in 1975 to 10-12t in 1994, that is more than 10 times. The costs of financial and material and technical resources to create 1 tons of new power increased significantly. The state of development of large highly productive fields is characterized by reserves in volumes of 60-90% of the initial extracted reserves, which predetermined the natural drop in oil production.

Due to the high generation of large highly productive deposits, the quality of stocks has changed for the worse, which requires the involvement of significantly large financial and material and technical resources for their development. Due to the reduction of funding, the volume of exploration was unacked, and the result of oil reproductions decreased. If in 1986-1990 In Western Siberia, reserves amounted to 4.88 billion tons, then in 1991-1995. Due to the reduction of exploratory drilling volumes, this increase decreased almost twice and amounted to 2.8 billion tons. in the conditions created to ensure the needs of the country, even for the near future, the adoption of government measures to build raw materials oaks are required.

The transition to market relations dictates the need to change approaches to the establishment of economic conditions for the functioning of enterprises belonging to the mining industries. In the oil industry, characterized by non-renewable resources of valuable mineral raw materials - oil, existing economic approaches are excluded from developing a significant part of the stocks due to the inefficiency of their development on current economic criteria. Estimates show that on individual oil companies For economic reasons, they cannot be involved in economic turnover from 160 to 1057 million tons of oil reserves.

Oil industry, having significant availability of balance reserves, in last years worsens his work. On average, the fall in oil production per year according to the current fund is estimated at 20%. For this reason, it is necessary to introduce new capacities for 115-120 million tons per year to preserve the achieved level of oil production in Russia, for which 62 million M operational wells is required, and in fact 18.5 million m, and In 1995 - 9.9 million m.

The lack of funds led to a sharp reduction in industrial and civil engineering, especially in Western Siberia. As a result, there was a decrease in the work on the arrangement of oil fields, the construction and reconstruction of oil collection and transportation systems, the construction of housing, schools, hospitals and other objects, which was one of the reasons for the intense social situation in oil-producing regions. The construction program of associated gas utilization facilities was reduced. As a result, more than 10 billion m3 of oil gas is burned in the torch. Due to the impossibility of reconstruction of oil pipeline systems, numerous gusts of pipelines constantly occur on fishery. Only in 1991 for this reason, more than 1 million tons of oil is lost and a big damage is caused. The reduction in construction orders led to a decay in Western Siberia powerful construction organizations.

One of the main reasons for the crisis state of the oil industry is also the absence of the necessary commercial equipment and pipes. On average, the deficit in providing industry material and technical resources exceeds 30%. In recent years, not a single new large production unit for the production of oilfield equipment, moreover, many plants of this profile have reduced production, and funds allocated for currency procurement turned out to be not enough.

Because of the bad logistics, the number of idle operational wells exceeded 25 thousand units., Including supernorumatively idle - 12 thousand units. For wells, it is superfluous, about 100 thousand tons of oil is lost daily.

An acute problem for the further development of the oil industry remains its weak accommodation with high-performance equipment and equipment for oil and gas production. By 1990, in the industry half of the technical means there was more than 50%, only 14% of machinery and equipment corresponded to the world level, the need for main types of products was satisfied on average by 40-80%. Such a provision with the provision of the industry equipped with a consequence of the weak development of the country's oil engineering. Imported deliveries in total equipment reached 20%, and for individual species reach 40%. Purchase of pipes reaches 40 - 50%.

...

Natural sources of hydrocarbons, their recycling. Message Natural sources of hydrocarbons The source of aromatic hydrocarbons is natural gas

Oil

Coal

Coal coking

Recycling Oil Recycling

Oil refining with catalytic cracking

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Chapter 1. Geochemistry of oil and intelligence combustible fossils

1 .1 The origin of flammable fossils

1. 2 GasHouseTright rocks

4) Inertinites - These are black opaque chip rocks (with a high carbon content and low content of hydrogen), which were formed from strongly changed wood precursors. They do not have the ability to turn into oil and gas.

Chapter 2. Natural Sources

Natural gas consists mainly of methane (Table 1).

Chapter 3. Industrial production of hydrocarbons

Chapter 4. Oil Recycling

4.1 Fractional distillation

4.2 cracking

4.3 Reforming

4.4 Cleaning from sulfur

Chapter 5. Applications of hydrocarbons

5.1 Alkana

5.2 Alkenes

5. 3 Alkina

5.4 Arena

Chapter 6. Analysis of the state of the oil industry

Similar documents

Last

It is necessary to know