Interesting facts about Neanderthals. Are they hairy

Recently, Swedish scientists using a new method managed to isolate and analyze DNA from the bones of a Neanderthal man found in the Siberian cave of Okladnikov. In particular, they sequenced mitochondrial DNA from Neanderthal bone and separated it from the DNA of modern humans, which made it possible to prove the relationship between the Neanderthals who lived in Siberia and Europe. Another important scientific event in this area was the message of the professor of the National Museum of History in London, Chris Stringer, that the Neanderthals "rewarded" us with genes for the risk of cancer and diabetes, but on the other hand, helped us survive in the fight against diseases that raged on the planet. thousands of years ago, against which modern man was vulnerable.

It has been proven that for thousands of years of living together on the planet, modern humans and Neanderthals had contacts and interbred. For example, it is known that about 2% of Europeans have Neanderthal DNA. It is likely that these genes, scientists believe, may be to blame for the onset of cancer and diabetes.

Last year, scientists from Oxford and Plymouth Universities discovered genes for cancer risk in the genome of Neanderthals, and in December, the journal Nature reported that scientists at Harvard believe that the gene that causes diabetes in Hispanics is a "gift" from Neanderthals.

However, Neanderthals may not be the only ones who have shared their DNA with us. 100-500 thousand years ago, up to seven different groups of prehistoric people lived on the planet at the same time.

These and other recent discoveries allow us to answer important questions about the Neanderthals, which are considered one of the greatest mysteries of human history. What were they like and why and how did they disappear? Do modern humans have genetic links to Neanderthals? Disputes about this have been going on since 1856, when the first skull of an ancient man, named after the place of discovery as a Neanderthal, was found in the Neander Valley near Dusseldorf.

It is known that Neanderthals appeared in Europe at least 300 thousand years ago, and disappeared 28-30 thousand years ago. Modern people, homo sapiens, came to Europe 50 thousand years ago and, therefore, shared the continent with them for 20 thousand years. We have selected seven of the most interesting and, most importantly, sufficiently substantiated facts that are known to modern science about Neanderthals.

1. Are Neanderthals our ancestors?

It is now widely believed that the Neanderthals were not the direct ancestors of modern humans, although they did have contact. Incl. and sexy. Most likely, they were a side branch on a dense human family tree.

Neanderthals and modern humans had a common ancestor. True, it was a very long time ago, about 660 thousand years ago, i.e. long before the appearance in Africa approx. 100 thousand years ago, homo sapiens.

2. Neanderthals were not as stupid as they are portrayed

Marcia de Leon, an employee of the Anthropological Institute at the University of Zurich, created a computer model of the brain of three Neanderthal children found in Syria and Russia. The size of the brain of Neanderthals was almost the same as that of modern humans. Among the Neanderthals, it was even slightly larger, but, alas, more in this case does not mean more effective.

Nevertheless, the Neanderthals were quite capable and in many ways were not inferior to our ancestors. They could produce and maintain fire, wore animal skins and buried the dead. As for their tools of labor and hunting, in complexity they were not much inferior to the tools of the Cro-Magnons, our direct ancestors, say scientists from the British University of Exeter after analyzing the museum exhibits.

There is also a theory that is directly opposite to the more recently most widespread theory, which was that in their development, the Neanderthals were quite slightly superior to the monkey people.

In Capellades, north of Barcelona, \u200b\u200barchaeologists have unearthed 15 kilns built by Neanderthals. Among them were stoves with ... forced draft.

In the Drachenloch Cave in the Swiss Alps, there is an altar dedicated to a bear and built 75 thousand years ago. In the stone sarcophagus lay 7 bear skulls, 6 more were kept in niches in the walls. The lunar calendar has 13 months, so the cave could well be something like a Neanderthal church, where the moon goddess was worshiped. There is also evidence that the Neanderthals worshiped the stars now known as the Pleiades or the Seven Sisters.

In other words, the Neanderthals, theoretically, at least could be astronomers and not inferior to us in intelligence.

In the seventies of the last century, a British anthropologist Stan Gooch put forward a theory according to which the Neanderthals had their own civilization. As one of the proofs, he cited the fact that they already used red ocher 100 thousand years ago. Few people took Gooch's theory seriously, but the discovery of stoves in Spain proves that he could well have been right and that our Cro-Magnon ancestors might not have been the first "intellectuals" on the planet.

3. Neanderthals knew how to talk

The presence of the hyoid bone (hyoid) in the throat of Neanderthals suggests the ability to speak. However, most anthropologists believe that they could hardly speak the complex language that was just beginning to develop in early modern humans.

At the end of last year, Australian scientists studied the hyod of a Neanderthal man who lived 60 thousand years ago, and came to the conclusion that it is very similar to our hyoid bone and was probably used for speech.

Scientists from Holland even believe that modern people borrowed something from the language of the Neanderthals and that traces of the Neanderthal dialects can be found in a number of modern languages \u200b\u200btoday.

4. Neanderthals were strong and agile

Neanderthals were stronger than rivals, they were dexterous and skilled hunters. It was they, and not the early people, who killed the mammoths and a number of other animals. Moreover, the Neanderthals hunted using hunting tricks. For example, according to one of probably the earliest hunting "tales" 150 thousand years ago, they once drove a herd of mammoths and rhinos into a trap on the islands in the English Channel. 18 mammoths and 5 rhinos fell off a cliff in a 30-meter gorge and died.

Analysis of the remains of two Neanderthal sites allowed a Dutch anthropologist Gerrit Düsseldorp conclude that where the climate was warmer, they preferred to hunt lonely game, and in cooler areas - on flocks and herds.

Just as with modern humans, Düsseldorp argues, the environment and food availability determined the choice of game and hunting methods. When circumstances permitted, the Neanderthals lived in large groups. So it was easier for them to hunt herd animals. This is the most difficult type of hunting, which implies a lot of experience, special skills and abilities. For example, good coordination of joint actions and the ability to communicate.

5. What did the Neanderthals eat?

Of course, the Neanderthal menu consisted mostly of meat. German anthropologists Michael Richard and Ralph Schmitz came to this conclusion based on the results of the analysis of carbon and nitrogen isotopes of the bones of Neanderthals found in Germany.

According to one theory, such a menu played an important role in their disappearance. British scientists believe that thanks to fish and waterfowl, modern people, unlike Neanderthals, managed to survive difficult times and not only survived, but also developed.

Based on the results of isotopic analysis of 9 human skeletons found in the Czech Republic, Great Britain and Russia and dating back to the late Paleolithic (20-28 thousand years ago) and comparing them with the results of the analysis of the bones of Neanderthals who lived in Europe at about the same time, archaeologists came to the conclusion that almost half of the protein our ancestors received from fish and waterfowl.

Our ancestors, unlike the Neanderthals, ate not only red meat, but also fish, white meat of waterfowl, molluscs and berries. Therefore, they turned out to be more prepared for changes in climate and life, believes Michael Richards, professor at Bradford University. Our ancestors, according to scientists, most likely knew how to harvest fish for future use. Perhaps they salted it or dried it.

The Neanderthals hunted exclusively for bison, deer, wild horses, mammoths and other large herbivores and became victims of their own success in hunting. When the number of these animals began to decline, they began to starve.

6. Neanderthals were cannibals

The controversy about this began after the bones of Neanderthals were found with characteristic marks very similar to those of human teeth. The supporters of the cannibal theory have many opponents. They argued that the marks on the bones were left not by the teeth of people, but by beasts of prey. Other explanations were also given. Traces on the bones could have been made, for example, for ritual burial. Even archaeologists could have left them, whose tools in the last decade of the 19th century were much worse and coarser than those of today.

The heated debate was ended by a find several years ago in a cave on the banks of the Rhone, flowing through the south of France. The picture, presented to the eyes of American and French archaeologists, resembled a scene of a bloody massacre.

The remains, which are at least 100 thousand years old, prove that the Neanderthals not only killed and ate their own kind, but also sucked bone marrow from the bones of their victims.

Professor at the University of Marseille Alban Defler I am sure that the marks on the bones of people and deer found in the cave are identical and were left by human teeth. Since in those distant times only Neanderthals lived in Europe, the conclusion that they were cannibals suggests itself.

7. Why did the Neanderthals disappear?

A reasonable question arises: if the Neanderthals were so smart and strong, why did they disappear from the face of the earth, and not the Cro-Magnons? DNA obtained from the bone of an adult Neanderthal who lived near the caves in the territory of modern Croatia, allowed scientists to conclude that the number of Neanderthals in Europe probably never exceeded 10 thousand people, which, of course, is very small for the settlement of the whole continent.

According to a biologist from Harvard Adrian Briggs, the small number of Neanderthals was due to extremely low genetic heterogeneity. The mitochondrial genomes of six Neanderthals, whose bones were found in Spain, Croatia, Germany and Russia, differ only in 55 "letters". All in all, there are more than 16 thousand “letters” in the genome. In terms of genetic diversity, Neanderthals were three times inferior to our ancestors! This is a very big difference, because the more individuals of a particular species, the more gene mutations.

He also believes that in the mitochondria of Neanderthals much more often than in humans or chimpanzees, dangerous mutations that change the shape of proteins occurred. This led to the gradual extinction of the species. In small populations, this process is very slow. Consequently, the number of Neanderthals sharply decreased not 20-30 thousand years ago, but remained low for tens, if not hundreds of thousands of years.

Scientists at the University of Newcastle propose a theory according to which Neanderthals could become extinct due to severe overheating of bodies.

This feature of the body was a big plus in cold climates, but after the end of the glaciation, it turned into an even greater minus. Too high body temperature could well become one of the main reasons for the complete disappearance of Neanderthals.

DNA analysis of Neanderthals made it possible to find in them very serious differences from modern humans in that part of the cells that is responsible for the production of energy. It comes, says a neurogeneticist from Newcastle Patrick Chinnery, on the differences in the chains of mitochondrial DNA. Mitochondria are tiny structures found in every living cell. These biological stations produce energy cells that convert sugar from food into energy and therefore are necessary for the life of any living organism.

One of the last, but, of course, not the only theory suggests that the number of Neanderthals was so small that they would have died out themselves, even if competitors had not appeared in Europe in the face of the ancestors of modern people.

Neanderthals could have simply died out of hunger when the animals they hunted disappeared.

According to another theory, a bloody conflict could occur between the representatives of the two branches of humanity, which, given the small number of Neanderthals, clearly ended not in their favor.

In addition, people who lived in the Stone Age, perhaps, were inferior to the Neanderthals in strength and dexterity, but were better adapted to the struggle for survival. Unlike the Neanderthals, they were able to throw heavy objects such as stones and spears. This, of course, gave them an edge in the war against the Neanderthals, if there was one. In favor of this theory, found by scientists in the northeast of modern Iraq, in the Zagr mountains, the rib of a Neanderthal 40-50 years old, who lived 50-75 thousand years ago and is now known as Shanidar 3, with a trace characteristic of a spear blow.

In conclusion, the original theory Rachel Casteri, professor of anthropology at the University of Michigan. She believes that approx. 30 thousand years, the average life expectancy of our ancestors for unknown reasons has increased dramatically. As a result, a new "family stratum" appeared - the third generation. The appearance of grandparents, who possessed great experience and knowledge, dramatically accelerated the development of modern man and brought him victory in the evolutionary war with the Neanderthals, for whom, alas, no changes in life expectancy occurred.

Neanderthals were better able to adapt to the subarctic climate better than modern humans, since the expanded nasal cavity warmed the cold air more, thereby reducing the risk of illness and hypothermia.

The muscle mass of the Neanderthal was 30-40% greater than that of the Cro-Magnon, the skeleton was much heavier.

It turns out that they also met among the Neanderthals.

Neanderthal diseases

Geneticists were able to identify some of the gene variants that the Neanderthals passed on to the ancient people. Among the characteristics associated with these genes was the "owl" chronotype; the ability of the skin to sunbathe or burn in the sun; an eating disorder; schizophrenia, autism, narcolepsy, Alzheimer's disease, and Down syndrome.

Neanderthals suffered from arthritis just like us. French paleontologist Marcellin Boulle was the first to compile a description of a Neanderthal based on bones found in 1908. Then he did not know that he got the skeleton of a Neanderthal man who suffered from arthritis. Marcellin Boole made an illustration showing him hunched over and looking like a gorilla. This image served as the basis for reprints.

Other facts

Neanderthals made musical instruments. Anthropologists have discovered a Neanderthal musical instrument - a bone flute with 4 holes.

In the nuclear DNA of Neanderthals, there are nucleotide sequences very similar to the sequences in the nuclear DNA of modern Caucasoids, Mongoloids and Austroloids. Those. in modern humans, about 2.5% of the genome is borrowed from the genome of Neanderthals.

The last Neanderthals disappeared just 40,000 years ago.

There are many misconceptions about the life of primitive people. The most common is that they were stupid and uncivilized, which is actually not true. But this is not the only stereotype prevailing in society. Today, there are many stories that scientists argue over. And it is worth noting that every year there is more information about this race.

In this article, we will look at 10 interesting facts about Neanderthals that most of us have absolutely no idea about.

Vertical walking

What is it and what is its peculiarity? Most history textbooks depict primitive people as hairy, stooped creatures that resemble something between an animal and a human. But there is little truth in this. As shown by the results of numerous studies of the found skeletons of Neanderthals, their spine and cervical spine were curved, which indicates an upright position of the body while walking. Thus, scientists have come to the conclusion that Neanderthals have much more in common with "Homo sapiens" than many think.

Caucasians have Neanderthal genes

About 70,000 years ago there was a massive migration of Homo Sapiens from Africa to the territory of modern Europe. In those days, there were 2 more types of primitive people - Neanderthals and Denisovans. In Eurasia, there was a crossing of two species, therefore, a piece of the genetic code of Neanderthals is present in the DNA of modern people.

Homo Sapiens Could Hunt Neanderthals and Eat Their Flesh

Spanish scientists have hypothesized that the first Homo Sapiens were related to Neanderthal meat. The path from Africa to Eurasia was quite difficult, so there is every prerequisite to believe that cannibalism was quite common at that time. The assumption is supported by scientific facts. French anthropologist Fernando Rozzi discovered human teeth marks on the bones of Neanderthals. Thus, it can be assumed that hunting continued until the complete extinction of representatives of this species.

Neanderthals knew how to paint

In one of the Spanish caves, rock art was discovered, created about 65,000 years ago. To create it, red pigments were used, the origin of which has not yet been established. It turns out that the Neanderthals were good artists.

They were hardly named Homo Stupidus.

Let's dwell on this in more detail. The first remains of Neanderthals were discovered in 1856 on the territory of Germany, which is called "Neander-Tal". It bears the name of the German minister Joachim Neumann, who loved to walk along the valley on duty. The name is formed by combining the two words Neander and thal.

In 1864, William King put forward a proposal to rename a new species of man to Homo stupidus, which means "stupid man", but his initiative did not find support. And this is for the best, because in the 19th century, Neanderthals were still poorly understood. Today, the scientific community knows that they not only had a well-developed mind, but also creative abilities.

There are many inbreds among Neanderthals

So what do you need to know about this? Mating with other related species was widespread among primitive people. In 2014, scientists found the remains of Neanderthals in Altai, which are more than 120,000 years old. Genetic analysis showed that the found person had relatives. The inbreeding theory has also been supported by a fossil found in Croatia, Spain and Sidron. The approximate age of the remains is 50,000 years. All bones have been shown to come from the same bloodline. But there is one interesting nuance. All bones had deformities, which indicates the presence of certain problems. According to scientists, it was inbreeding that became one of the reasons for the extinction of the species, since it made its representatives weaker. Unfortunately, some of the genes of the Neanderthals were passed on to Homo Sapiens, but they are largely suppressed, so modern people do not have serious developmental disabilities.

Cannibalism

So what is known about this fact? Eating humans by Neanderthals was very common. Scientists came to this conclusion, having studied in detail the remains of five primitive people, about 40,000 years old. The bones were broken in the same way as they were broken by animals during a hunt. The cause of cannibalism remains unknown. The flesh of primitive people had a low nutritional value, which makes it little suitable for human consumption. It would be more expedient to hunt large animals such as horses, bison or mammoths, which were abundant. The most reasonable explanation is nutrient-rich bone marrow. Another theory concerns cultural causes and lifestyle. The Neanderthals simply guarded their territories, and the strangers who wandered into it were killed and eaten.

They were hunted by other animals

Survival in primitive times was not an easy task. Neanderthals were forced to defend themselves not only from fellows, but also from wild animals. When studying the fossilized remains, bite marks of large carnivorous predators were found. One of the skeletons belonged to a young man killed by a wild cat. And the analysis of the skeleton of a child found in one of the caves in Poland showed that he had been in the digestive system of some primitive bird. But there is no exact data confirming this fact. Nevertheless, it is also impossible to completely exclude the possibility of death of Neanderthals at an early age from animals.

They buried their dead brothers

Let's dwell on this in more detail. In 1908, archaeologists discovered a unique find in the La Chanel-aux-Seine cave in France. The fossils are 50,000 years old. Archaeologists are fully convinced that they came across a grave in which a Neanderthal was deliberately buried. Their assumption was confirmed by American scientists, who re-conducted the research and came to the conclusion about the burial. The first similar graves are found today all over the world. Based on this, we can conclude that primitive people were not savages. They took care of sick, wounded and deceased relatives, which is characteristic only of intellectually developed creatures.

The cause of the extinction is unknown

Why exactly the Neanderthals disappeared from the planet as a separate species remains unknown. There are many theories, but they are not supported by specific facts. Some scientists are inclined to believe that inbreeding is to blame, while others are convinced that the cause lies in the fatal diseases introduced to the territory of Europe by the first Homo Sapiens. But there is no doubt that the Neanderthals managed to somehow survive at least one Ice Age. What actually happened is anyone's guess.

1. Name (more precisely, working title) - "Denisova 11".

2. Source of information: nuclear DNA obtained from 175 mg of bone powder. Find: bone fragment 24.7 x 8.4 mm, skeletal location unknown.

3. The age of the girl is over 13 years old (as stated in one of the scientific reports, “the age of the bone remains is more than 13 years before death”).

4. Father - Denisovite, mother - Neanderthal.

5. The parents of "Denisova 11" are non-purebred representatives of their subspecies, they carry the genetic trace of previous crosses, which is reflected in the girl's genome. Thus, her father had at least one Neanderthal ancestor during his lifetime.

6. The ancestors of "Denisova 11" along the Neanderthal lineage were probably relatively recent (about 20,000 years before the girl's life) newcomers from Europe: in particular, their genetic link with the inhabitants of the Vindija cave (Croatia) is traced.

7. 1.2% of DNA fragments of "Denisova 11" correspond to modern humans, 38.6% to Neanderthal and 42.3% to Denisovans.

Professor Svante Paabo, head of the laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the Study of the History of Human Society (Leipzig, Germany):

- And to the present time we are all hybrids. In the genome of individual groups of modern people, you can find 10-15% of the genes of the Neanderthal man and 1.5-5% of the genes of the Denisovan man. Even such a low proportion affects, according to one of our hypotheses, the adaptability to high altitude of the inhabitants of Tibet and to the cold of Greenland. Why not more? Firstly, populations of Homo subspecies did not meet and mix very often. Secondly, selective selection against hybridization was at work.

Vivian Sloan, Svante Paabo laboratory worker:

- We carefully checked all our results and the purity of their receipt. Versions such as mixing of material in the laboratory, errors in analytical equipment and even the consequences of cannibalism were excluded. We can confidently assert that the genome of the daughter of the Denisovan man and a representative of the population of Altai Neanderthals has been sequenced.

It was also established that the crossing of various subspecies of hominids in the Pleistocene epoch occurred practically at every contact of different populations.

Academician Anatoly Panteleevich Derevyanko, scientific director of the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography of the SB RAS:

Neanderthals also lived in the cave together with the Denisovans. The question naturally arises: how did they coexist? I recently made two hypotheses.

The first is antagonistic, when two species compete to the point of mutual destruction and even eating their own kind. This is supported by the absence of objects of the Neanderthal industry in Denisova Cave - only fragments of their own remains. Although, I note that in the Okladnikov cave located 45 km away (in a straight line), a sufficient number of Neanderthal stone products, more archaic in comparison with Denisov ones, were found.

The second hypothesis is that there was a complementary relationship between Neanderthals and Denisovans, right up to crossing. This option is supported by the latest discovery in the subtitle.

In the same eleventh layer in 2016, a fragment of a human bone was found, so tiny that it has not yet been possible to establish its exact location in the skeleton. But the sequencing of the DNA obtained from the bone showed that this girl, at least 13 years old, was a hybrid of a Neanderthal and a Denisovan, and in the fourth generation. Note that mixed species offspring (for example, horses and donkeys) are not capable of further reproduction. As soon as Neanderthals and Denisovans interbred repeatedly, it follows from this that they belong to the same biological species with all the already established cultural and genetic differences.

This is an extremely important fundamental discovery. Denisovans and Neanderthals interbred with early modern humans, formed in Africa 200-150 thousand years ago. All this testifies to the unity of the biological species that settled in Africa and Eurasia. And this attracts more and more of our colleagues from all over the world to Denisova Cave: archaeologists, geneticists, anthropologists, paleontologists.

Did this discovery bring new knowledge about the appearance of Denisovans? Not yet. Genetic analysis provides incomplete information, since not all parts of the ancient genome can be restored. It all depends on the length of the chain and its sections that you can explore. So, about the first girl from Denisova cave, we only know that she was dark-skinned and brown-eyed, plus her approximate age.

Neanderthals are usually portrayed as cruel, filthy, stooped subhuman. It is believed that they did not speak, led a primitive and even wild lifestyle, although the brain volume was larger than ours. Still, they had their own culture: they hunted, got on in groups, buried the dead, looked after the sick. Neanderthals have lived in Europe for thousands of years and have spread throughout the continent during that time.

DNA issues

As of 2009, the complete genome of the Neanderthal has been compiled. Modern science makes it possible to revive this species, it will cost about $ 30 million. There remains a lot of controversy and ethical controversy to clone this species (and not only this one), but there is no reason to doubt this possibility.

Monkey faces

Before that, skeletons were found affected by various diseases and underwent changes. In 1983, Jay Matterns obtained and tested the healthiest sample. This study showed that the Neanderthals looked almost exactly like us.

Caves

Some Neanderthals did live in caves, but the main place of residence is in huts. They were built from trees, animal bones and skins, strengthened with clay and stones. The huts have been in use for many years, so they were carefully built. The improvised foundation is buried deep in the ground and carefully tied together. The stones were laid out around the hut, leaned against the walls to maintain their shape and make a counterweight from the wind.

Ethnos

We think of Neanderthals as a group of people who have many similarities. But they also had different ethnic groups. Recent studies have shown that there were 3 ethnic groups, similar in characteristics to the existing

Savages

There is a lot of evidence that they took care of children, the elderly and the sick. Many skeletons have been found that have suffered injuries that are incompatible with life if not for the care of others. Also found are musical instruments, which means the presence of culture and traditions

Slouch

A Neanderthal skeleton was discovered in the early 20th century, hunched over and with bent knees. This led to the opinion that the Neanderthals were stooped. In fact, the owner of the skeleton suffered from arthritis. They, just like modern people, moved on 2 legs and straight, but were shorter by an average of 15-20 centimeters.

Stones and sticks

It is believed that the only tools and weapons are stones and sticks. In fact, they not only found tools in nature that were suitable in shape and size, but also made the necessary tools themselves from various materials. These were spears, axes, hammers, dishes and ornaments. The materials used were various types of stone, plants, wood, animal sinews, skins, teeth, horns and bones. Much has simply not been preserved in its proper form.

Excess hair

There is no reason to believe that Neanderthals were very hairy compared to modern humans. Studies have shown that excess hairiness would lead to excessive sweating, which would later serve as a breeding ground for disease.

Our ancestors

Man is not descended from Neanderthals, as some think. In fact, these are two separate species that existed side by side. DNA research has proven that Neanderthals are part of a separate evolutionary chain, which eventually reached a dead end. They became extinct about 30,000 years ago, presumably due to the prevalence of mortality over births in an unstable climate.

Lack of speech

Neanderthals could not speak like modern humans. For a long time it was believed that they are generally only capable of making sounds, like animals, with the help of the larynx. But in 1983, scientists discovered the remains in which the hyoid bone is clearly preserved - part of the mechanism of speech of modern humans. This discovery meant that, at least physically, Neanderthals were capable of speech. The find was made in Israel, in caves.