Frederick the Seven Years' War. Causes of the Seven Years' War - in detail. Travel to East Prussia

After the Thirty Years' War, the nature of confrontations between countries in the world began to change. Local conflicts gave way to wars that had an international character. For example, such was the Seven Years' War, which began in Europe in 1756. It was an attempt by the Prussian king Frederick II to extend his influence over most of the continent. The aspirations of Prussia were supported by England, and a coalition of four states opposed such a powerful "tandem". These were Austria, Saxony, Sweden, France, which were supported by Russia.

The war lasted until 1763, ending with the signing of a series of peace treaties that influenced the political development of countries.

Reason and causes of the war

The official reason for the war was the dissatisfaction of many countries with the results of the redistribution of the "Austrian heritage". This process lasted eight years - from 1740 to 1748, leaving the states of Europe dissatisfied with new territorial acquisitions. The political and economic situation of that time had a significant impact on the formation of contradictions between England and France, Austria and Prussia. So by the end of the 1750s. Two groups of reasons were formed that provoked the start of the Seven Years' War:

England and France could not divide the colonial possessions among themselves. The countries constantly competed with each other in this matter and not only at the political level. There were also armed clashes that claimed the lives of the population in the colonies and the soldiers of both armies.
Austria and Prussia were arguing over Silesia, which was the most developed industrial region of Austria, taken from it as a result of the conflict of 1740-1748.

Participants of the confrontation

Prussia, which kindled the fire of war, concluded a coalition agreement with England. This group was opposed by Austria, France, Saxony, Sweden and Russia, which provided significant support to the coalition. Neutrality was occupied by Holland, which participated in the war for the "Austrian Succession".

Main fronts of the war

Historians distinguish three directions in which the hostilities of the opponents took place. First, this is the Asian front, where events unfolded in India. Secondly, this is the North American front, where the interests of France and England clashed. Thirdly, the European front, on which many military battles took place.

Start of hostilities

Frederick II had been preparing for war for several years. First of all, he increased the number of his own troops and carried out its complete reorganization. As a result, the king received a modern and efficient army for that time, whose soldiers made a number of successful conquests. In particular, Silesia was taken from Austria, which provoked a conflict between the members of the two coalitions. The ruler of Austria, Maria Theresa, wanted to return the region, and therefore turned to France, Sweden and Russia for help. The Prussian army could not stand against such a united army, which became the reason for the search for allies. Only England was able to resist both Russia and France at the same time. For their "services" the British government wanted to secure possessions on the mainland.

Prussia was the first to start hostilities by attacking Saxony, which was strategically important for Frederick II:

Bridgehead for further advance to Austria.
Providing a permanent supply of food and water for the Prussian army.
Use for the benefit of Prussia of the material and economic potential of Saxony.

Austria tried to repel the attack of the Prussian army, but everything was unsuccessful. No one could stand against Frederick's soldiers. The army of Maria Theresa was unable to hold back the attacks of Prussia, so all the time losing in local skirmishes.

Within a short time, Frederick II managed to capture Moravia, Bohemia, entering Prague for a short while. The Austrian army began to fight back only in the summer of 1757, when the Austrian commander Daun, using the entire military reserve, ordered a constant shelling of the Prussian army. The consequence of such actions was the capitulation of the troops of Frederick II and his gradual retreat to the city of Nimburg. In order to save the remnants of his army, the king ordered to remove the oblogue of Prague, and return to the border of his own state.

European front 1758-1763: main events and battles

An allied army of almost 300 thousand people came out against the army of the Prussian king. Therefore, Frederick II decided to split the coalition that fought against her. First, the French were defeated, who were in the principalities neighboring Austria. This allowed Prussia to invade Silesia again.

Strategically, Frederick II was several steps ahead of his enemies. He managed to deceive attacks to bring chaos into the ranks of the army of the French, Lorraine and Austrians. Thanks to a well-planned operation, Silesia ended up under the rule of Prussia in the second.

In the summer of 1757, Russian troops actively began to take part in the war, which tried to seize eastern regions Prussian state. By August of the same year, it became clear that Frederick would lose the Second Battle of Koenigsberg and East Prussia. But the Russian General Apraksin refused to continue military operations, arguing that the army was in a disadvantageous position. As a result of a successful campaign, the Russian army left behind only the port of Memel, where the base of the fleet of the Russian Empire was located for the entire period of the war.

During 1758-1763. There were many battles, the main of which were:

1758 - East Prussia and Koenigsberg were conquered from the Russians, the decisive battle took place near the village of Zorndorf.
The battle near the village of Kunersdorf, where it took place major battle the Prussian army and the combined Russian-Astrian. After the battle, only three thousand soldiers remained from the 48 thousand army of Frederick II, with whom the king was forced to retreat across the Oder River. Another part of the Prussian soldiers were dispersed in neighboring settlements. It took several days for the king and his generals to get them back in line. The allies did not pursue the army of Frederick the Second, since the human losses went to tens of thousands, a lot of soldiers were injured and went missing. After the Battle of Kunersdorf, Russian troops redeployed to Silesia, which helped the Austrians drive out the Prussian army.
In 1760-1761. military operations were practically not conducted, the nature of the war can be characterized as inactive. Even the fact that Russian troops occupied Berlin for a while in 1760, but then surrendered it without a fight, did not cause an intensification of hostilities. The city was returned back to Prussia because it was of strategic importance.
In 1762, Peter the Third ascended the Russian throne, who replaced Elizaveta Petrovna. This had a radical effect on the further course of the war. The Russian emperor worshiped the military genius of Frederick II, so he went to sign a peace treaty with him. At this time, England destroyed the fleet of France, bringing her out of the war. Peter the Third was killed in July 1762 on the orders of his wife, after which Russia returned to the war again, but did not continue it. Catherine II did not want to allow Austria to strengthen in Central Europe.
February 1763 was signed by the Austro-Prussian peace treaty.

North American and Asian fronts

In North America, confrontations took place between England and France, who could not divide the spheres of influence in Canada. The French did not want to lose their possessions in this part of the North American continent, so they aggravated relations with the British in every possible way. Numerous Indian tribes were also drawn into the confrontation, who were trying to survive in an undeclared war.

The battle that finally put everything in its place took place in 1759 near Quebec. After that, the French finally lost their colonies in North America.

A clash of interests between the two countries also occurred in Asia, where Bengal rebelled against the British. It happened in 1757, at the very beginning of the Seven Years' War. France, to which Bengal was subject, declared neutrality. But this did not stop the British, they began to attack the French outposts more and more often.

The conduct of the war on several fronts and the absence of a strong army in Asia led to the fact that the government of this country could not adequately organize the defense of its Asian possessions. The British hurried to take advantage of this by landing their troops on the island of Martinique. It was the center of French trade in the West Indies, and as a result of the Seven Years' War, Martinique was ceded to Britain.

The results of the confrontation between England and France were enshrined in a peace treaty, which was signed in early February 1762 in Paris.

The results of the war

In fact, the war ended in 1760, but local confrontations continued for almost three more years. Peace treaties between the countries were signed in 1762 and 1763, on their basis the system of relations in Europe was then created after the Seven Years' War. The results of this conflict changed, once again, changed the political map of Europe, slightly adjusting the borders and reformatting the balance of power in the second half of the 18th century. in international relations.

The main consequences of the war include:

The redistribution of colonial possessions in Europe, which caused the redistribution of spheres of influence between England and France.
England became the largest colonial empire in Europe, thanks to the displacement of France from Northern Europe and Europe.
France in Europe lost a lot of territory, which caused a weakening of the position of the state in Europe.
In France, during the Seven Years' War, the preconditions for the beginning of the revolution, which began in 1848, gradually took shape.
Prussia formalized its claims to Austria in the form of a peace treaty, under the terms of which Silesia, as well as neighboring territories, came under the rule of Frederick II.
Aggravated territorial contradictions in Central Europe.
Russia has gained invaluable experience in conducting military operations in Europe against the leading states of the continent.
In Europe, a galaxy of outstanding commanders was formed, who then began to bring victories to their states.
Russia did not receive any territorial acquisitions, but its positions in Europe were strengthened and strengthened.
A large number of people died. According to average estimates, about two million servicemen could have died in the Seven Years' War.
In the British colonies in North America, taxes increased several times to pay for military expenses. This aroused the resistance of the colonists, who in Canada and the North American states tried to develop industry, build roads, and invest in the economy of the colonies. As a result, the prerequisites began to take shape for the struggle against British rule on the continent.
The Asian colonies of France became the property of the British Monarchy.

The victory of Prussia in the Seven Years' War could not have been predicted by the talented commanders of that time. Yes, Frederick II was a brilliant strategist and tactician, but his army was on the verge of complete loss many times. Historians believe that a number of factors prevented the final defeat of the Prussian army:

The allied coalition formed against Prussia was not effective. Each country defended its own interests, which prevented at the right time to unite and act as a single force against the enemy.
A strong Prussia was a profitable ally for Russia, England, and France, so the states agreed to seize Silesia and Austria.

Thanks to this, the consequences of the Seven Years' War had a serious impact on the situation in Europe. In the central part of the continent, a strong Prussian state arose, with centralized power. So Frederick II managed to overcome the separatism of individual principalities, get rid of the fragmentation within the country, focusing on the unity of the German lands. Prussia, in consequence, became the central core of the formation of such a state as Germany.

Kingdom of Naples
Sardinian kingdom Commanders

Friedrich II

F. W. Seidlitz
George II
George III
Robert Clave
Ferdinand of Brunswick Count Down
Count Lassie
Prince of Lorraine
Ernst Gideon Loudon
Louis XV
Louis Joseph de Montcalm
empress elizabeth
P. S. Saltykov
Charles III
August III Side forces

1756 - 250 000 soldiers: Prussia 200,000, Hanover 50,000
1759 - 220 000 Prussian soldiers
1760 - 120 000 Prussian soldiers

1756 - 419 000 soldier: Russian Empire 100,000 soldiers
1759 - 391 000 soldiers: France 125,000, Holy Roman Empire 45,000, Austria 155,000, Sweden 16,000, Russian Empire 50,000
1760 - 220 000 soldier

Losses see below see below

The main standoff in Europe was between Austria and Prussia over Silesia, lost by Austria in the previous Silesian Wars. Therefore, the Seven Years' War is also called Third Silesian War. The first (-) and second (-) Silesian Wars are an integral part of the War of the Austrian Succession. In Swedish historiography the war is known as Pomeranian War(Swede. Pommerska kriget), in Canada - as "War of Conquest"(English) The War of the Conquest) and in India as "Third Karnatic War"(English) The Third Carnatic War). The North American theater of war is called French and Indian War.

The designation "seven-year" war received in the eighties of the eighteenth century, before that it was spoken of as a "recent war".

Causes of the war

Opposing Coalitions in Europe 1756

The first shots of the Seven Years' War were heard long before its official announcement, and not in Europe, but across the ocean. In - gg. Anglo-French colonial rivalry in North America led to border skirmishes between English and French colonists. By the summer of 1755, the clashes turned into an open armed conflict, in which both allied Indians and regular military units began to participate (see French and Indian War). In 1756 Great Britain officially declared war on France.

"Flipping Alliances"

This conflict disrupted the system of military-political alliances that had developed in Europe and caused a reorientation of the foreign policy of a number of European powers, known as the “reversal of alliances”. The traditional rivalry between Austria and France for continental hegemony was weakened by the emergence of a third power: Prussia, after Frederick II came to power in 1740, began to claim a leading role in European politics. Having won the Silesian wars, Frederick took Silesia, one of the richest Austrian provinces, from Austria, as a result, increasing the territory of Prussia from 118.9 thousand to 194.8 thousand square kilometers, and the population - from 2,240,000 to 5,430,000 people. It is clear that Austria could not so easily come to terms with the loss of Silesia.

Having started a war with France, in January 1756, Great Britain concluded an alliance treaty with Prussia, thereby wishing to secure Hanover, the hereditary possession of the English king on the continent, from the threat of a French attack. Frederick, considering the war with Austria inevitable and aware of the limitations of his resources, relied on "English gold", as well as on the traditional influence of England on Russia, hoping to keep Russia from participating in the upcoming war and thereby avoid a war on two fronts. . Having overestimated the influence of England on Russia, he, at the same time, clearly underestimated the indignation caused by his treaty with the British in France. As a result, Frederick will have to fight with a coalition of the three strongest continental powers and their allies, which he dubbed the “Union of Three Women” (Maria Theresa, Elizabeth and Madame Pompadour). However, behind the jokes of the Prussian king regarding his opponents, there is a lack of self-confidence: the forces in the war on the continent are too unequal, England, which does not have a strong land army, except for subsidies, can do little to help him.

The conclusion of the Anglo-Prussian alliance pushed Austria, yearning for revenge, to move closer to its old enemy - France, for which Prussia has now also become an enemy (France, which supported Frederick in the first Silesian wars and saw in Prussia just an obedient tool for crushing Austrian power, was able to make sure that Friedrich does not even think to reckon with the role assigned to him). The famous Austrian diplomat of that time, Count Kaunitz, became the author of the new foreign policy. A defensive alliance was signed between France and Austria at Versailles, to which Russia joined at the end of 1756.

In Russia, the strengthening of Prussia was perceived as a real threat to its western borders and interests in the Baltic and northern Europe. Close ties with Austria, with which an alliance treaty was signed as early as 1746, also influenced the determination of Russia's position in the emerging European conflict. Traditionally close ties also existed with England. It is curious that, having broken off diplomatic relations with Prussia long before the start of the war, Russia, nevertheless, did not break off diplomatic relations with England throughout the war.

None of the countries participating in the coalition was interested in the complete destruction of Prussia, hoping to use it in the future in their own interests, however, all were interested in weakening Prussia, in returning it to the borders that existed before the Silesian wars. That. The coalition members waged a war for the restoration of the old system of political relations on the continent, violated by the results of the War of the Austrian Succession. Having united against a common enemy, the members of the anti-Prussian coalition did not even think about forgetting their traditional differences. Disagreement in the camp of the enemy, caused by conflicting interests and having a detrimental effect on the conduct of the war, was, in the end, one of the main reasons that allowed Prussia to resist the confrontation.

Until the end of 1757, when the successes of the newly-minted David in the fight against the “Goliath” of the anti-Prussian coalition created a club of admirers for the king in Germany and abroad, it never occurred to anyone in Europe to seriously consider Frederick the “Great”: at that time, most Europeans saw in him a sassy upstart who should have been put in his place long ago. To achieve this goal, the Allies sent a huge army of 419,000 soldiers against Prussia. Frederick II had only 200,000 soldiers at his disposal, plus 50,000 defenders of Hanover, hired for English money.

Characters

Russian autocrat Elizaveta Petrovna

Austrian Empress Maria Theresa

Prussian King Frederick II

Louis XV, King of France

George II, King of England

European theater of war

Eastern European theater of operations Seven Years' War
Lobositz - Reichenberg - Prague - Kolin - Hastenbeck - Gross-Jägersdorf - Berlin (1757) - Moiss - Rossbach - Breslau - Leuten - Olmütz - Krefeld - Domstadl - Küstrin - Zorndorf - Tarmov - Lutherberg (1758) -Verbellin - Hochkirch - Bergen - Palzig - Minden - Kunersdorf - Hoyerswerda - Maxsen - Meissen - Landesshut - Emsdorf - Warburg - Liegnitz - Klosterkampen - Berlin (1760) - Torgau - Fehlinghausen - Kolberg - Wilhelmsthal - Burkersdorf - Lutherberg (1762) - Reichenbach - Freiberg

1756 attack on Saxony

Military operations in Europe in 1756

Without waiting for the opponents of Prussia to deploy their forces, Frederick II on August 28, 1756 was the first to begin hostilities, suddenly invading Saxony, allied with Austria, and occupying it. On September 1, 1756, Elizaveta Petrovna declared war on Prussia. On September 9, the Prussians surrounded the Saxon army encamped near Pirna. October 1, going to the rescue of the Saxons, the 33.5 thousandth army of the Austrian Field Marshal Brown was defeated at Lobozitz. Caught in a hopeless situation, the eighteen thousandth army of Saxony capitulated on October 16. Captured, the Saxon soldiers were driven by force into the Prussian army. Later, they would “thank” Friedrich by running across to the enemy in whole battalions.

Seven Years' War in Europe

Saxony, which had armed forces the size of an average army corps and, moreover, bound by eternal turmoil in Poland (the Saxon elector was, concurrently, the Polish king), did not pose, of course, any military threat to Prussia. Aggression against Saxony was caused by Frederick's intentions:

use Saxony as a convenient base of operations for the invasion of Austrian Bohemia and Moravia, the supply of Prussian troops here could be organized by waterways, along the Elbe and Oder, while the Austrians would have to use inconvenient mountain roads;
transfer the war to the territory of the enemy, thus forcing him to pay for it, and, finally,
to use the human and material resources of prosperous Saxony for their own strengthening. Subsequently, he carried out his plan to rob this country so successfully that some Saxons still dislike the inhabitants of Berlin and Brandenburg.

Despite this, in German (not Austrian!) historiography, it is still customary to consider the war, on the part of Prussia, as a defensive war. The argument is that the war would still have been started by Austria and its allies, regardless of whether Frederick had attacked Saxony or not. Opponents of this point of view object: the war began, not least because of the Prussian conquests, and its first act was aggression against a defenseless neighbor.

1757: Battles of Kolin, Rosbach and Leuthen, Russia begins hostilities

Bohemia, Silesia

Operations in Saxony and in Silesia in 1757

Strengthening himself by absorbing Saxony, Frederick, at the same time, achieved the opposite effect, spurring his opponents to active offensive operations. Now he had no choice but, to use the German expression, "running forward" (German. Flucht nach vorne). Counting on the fact that France and Russia will not be able to enter the war before the summer, Frederick intends to defeat Austria before that time. At the beginning of 1757, the Prussian army, moving in four columns, entered Austrian territory in Bohemia. The Austrian army under the Prince of Lorraine consisted of 60,000 soldiers. On May 6, the Prussians defeated the Austrians and blockaded them in Prague. Having taken Prague, Frederick is going to go to Vienna without delay. However, the blitzkrieg plans were dealt a blow: the 54,000th Austrian army under the command of Field Marshal L. Daun came to the aid of the besieged. On June 18, 1757, in the vicinity of the city of Kolin, the 34,000-strong Prussian army entered into battle with the Austrians. Frederick II lost this battle, losing 14,000 men and 45 guns. The heavy defeat not only destroyed the myth of the invincibility of the Prussian commander, but, more importantly, forced Frederick II to lift the blockade of Prague and hastily retreat to Saxony. Soon, a threat that arose in Thuringia, from the French and the Imperial army ("Caesars"), forced him to leave there with the main forces. From this moment on, having a significant numerical superiority, the Austrians win a series of victories over the generals of Friedrich (at Moise on September 7, at Breslau on November 22), the key Silesian fortresses of Schweidnitz (now Swidnica, Poland) and Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland) are in their hands. In October 1757, the Austrian general Hadik managed to capture the capital of Prussia, the city of Berlin, for a short time with a sudden raid by a flying detachment. Having averted the threat from the French and the "Caesars", Frederick II transferred an army of forty thousand to Silesia and on December 5 won a decisive victory over the Austrian army at Leuthen. As a result of this victory, the situation that existed at the beginning of the year was restored. Thus, the result of the campaign was a "combat draw".

Middle Germany

1758: The battles of Zorndorf and Hochkirch do not bring decisive success to either side

The new commander-in-chief of the Russians was general-in-chief Willim Fermor, who became famous for taking Memel in the previous campaign. At the beginning of 1758, he occupied, without meeting resistance, all of East Prussia, including its capital, the city of Koenigsberg, then heading towards Brandenburg. In August he laid siege to Küstrin, a key fortress on the way to Berlin. Friedrich immediately moved towards him. The battle took place on August 14 near the village of Zorndorf and was distinguished by tremendous bloodshed. The Russians had 42,000 soldiers in the army with 240 guns, while Frederick had 33,000 soldiers with 116 guns. The battle revealed several big problems in the Russian army - the insufficient interaction of individual units, the poor moral preparation of the observational corps (the so-called "Shuvalovites"), finally, called into question the competence of the commander in chief himself. At the critical moment of the battle, Fermor left the army, did not direct the course of the battle for some time, and appeared only towards the end. Clausewitz later called the battle of Zorndorf the strangest battle of the Seven Years' War, referring to its chaotic, unpredictable course. Having started "according to the rules", it eventually resulted in a great massacre, breaking up into many separate battles, in which the Russian soldiers showed unsurpassed tenacity, according to Friedrich, it was not enough to kill them, they also had to be knocked down. Both sides fought to the point of exhaustion and suffered huge losses. The Russian army lost 16,000 people, the Prussians 11,000. The opponents spent the night on the battlefield, the next day Fermor was the first to withdraw his troops, thus giving Frederick a reason to attribute the victory to himself. However, he did not dare to pursue the Russians. Russian troops withdrew to the Vistula. General Palmbach, sent by Fermor to besiege Kolberg, stood for a long time under the walls of the fortress, without doing anything.

On October 14, the Austrians operating in South Saxony managed to defeat Frederick at Hochkirch, however, without much consequences. Having won the battle, the Austrian commander Daun led his troops back to Bohemia.

The war with the French was more successful for the Prussians, they beat them three times in a year: at Rheinberg, at Krefeld and at Mer. In general, although the 1758 campaign of the year ended more or less successfully for the Prussians, it additionally weakened the Prussian troops, who suffered significant, irreplaceable losses for Frederick during the three years of the war: from 1756 to 1758, he lost, not counting those who were captured, 43 general killed or died from wounds received in battles, among them, their best military leaders, such as Keith, Winterfeld, Schwerin, Moritz von Dessau and others.

1759: Defeat of the Prussians at Kunersdorf, "the miracle of the House of Brandenburg"

May 8 (19), 1759 commander in chief Russian army, concentrated at that time in Poznan, instead of V.V. Fermor, General-in-Chief P.S. Saltykov was unexpectedly appointed. (The reasons for Fermor's resignation are not entirely clear, however, it is known that the St. the outcome of the battle of Zorndorf and the unsuccessful sieges of Küstrin and Kolberg). On July 7, 1759, the forty-thousandth Russian army marched west to the Oder River, in the direction of the city of Krosen, intending to join the Austrian troops there. The debut of the new commander-in-chief was successful: on July 23, in the battle of Palzig (Kai), he utterly defeated the twenty-eight thousandth corps of the Prussian General Wedel. On August 3, 1759, the allies met in the city of Frankfurt an der Oder, three days before that occupied by Russian troops.

At this time, the Prussian king with an army of 48,000 people, with 200 guns, was moving towards the enemy from the south. On August 10, he crossed to the right bank of the Oder River and took up a position east of the village of Kunersdorf. On August 12, 1759, the famous battle of the Seven Years' War took place - the Battle of Kunersdorf. Frederick was utterly defeated, out of the 48,000th army, he, by his own admission, did not even have 3,000 soldiers left. “In truth,” he wrote to his minister after the battle, “I believe that all is lost. I will not survive the death of my Fatherland. Goodbye forever". After the victory at Kunersdorf, the allies had only to strike the last blow, take Berlin, the road to which was free, and thereby force Prussia to surrender, however, disagreements in their camp did not allow them to use the victory and end the war. Instead of advancing on Berlin, they pulled their troops away, accusing each other of violating allied obligations. Friedrich himself called his unexpected salvation "the miracle of the House of Brandenburg." Friedrich escaped, but failures continued to haunt him until the end of the year: on November 20, the Austrians, together with imperial troops, managed to encircle and force the 15,000-strong corps of the Prussian general Fink at Maxen to surrender without a fight.

The heavy defeats of 1759 prompted Frederick to turn to England with the initiative to convene a peace congress. The British supported it all the more willingly because they, for their part, considered the main goals in this war achieved. On November 25, 1759, 5 days after Maxen, an invitation to a peace congress was handed over to representatives of Russia, Austria and France in Rysvik. France signaled its participation, however, the matter ended in nothing because of the intransigent position taken by Russia and Austria, who hoped to use the victories of 1759 to deliver the final blow to Prussia in the next year's campaign.

Nicholas Pocock. "The Battle of Quiberon Bay" (1812)

Meanwhile, England at sea defeated the French fleet at Quiberon Bay.

1760: Frederick's Pyrrhic victory at Torgau

The war thus continued. In 1760, Frederick with difficulty brought the size of his army to 120,000 soldiers. The Franco-Austrian-Russian troops by this time numbered up to 220,000 soldiers. However, as in previous years, the numerical superiority of the Allies was nullified by the lack of a unified plan and inconsistency in actions. The Prussian king, trying to prevent the actions of the Austrians in Silesia, on August 1, 1760, sent his thirty thousandth army across the Elbe and, with the passive pursuit of the Austrians, arrived in the Liegnitz region by August 7. Misleading a stronger enemy (Field Marshal Down had about 90,000 soldiers by this time), Frederick II actively maneuvered at first, and then decided to break through to Breslau. While Friedrich and Down mutually exhausted the troops with their marches and countermarches, the Austrian corps of General Laudon on August 15 in the Liegnitz region suddenly collided with the Prussian troops. Frederick II unexpectedly attacked and defeated Laudon's corps. The Austrians lost up to 10,000 killed and 6,000 captured. Friedrich, who lost about 2,000 men killed and wounded in this battle, managed to break out of the encirclement.

Barely escaping encirclement, the Prussian king almost lost his own capital. On October 3 (September 22), 1760, the detachment of Major General Totleben stormed Berlin. The assault was repulsed and Totleben had to retreat to Köpenick, where he waited for the corps of Lieutenant General Z. G. Chernyshev (reinforced by Panin's 8,000th corps) and the Austrian corps of General Lassi, assigned to reinforce the corps. On the evening of October 8, at a military council in Berlin, due to the overwhelming numerical superiority of the enemy, a decision was made to retreat, and on the same night the Prussian troops defending the city leave for Spandau, leaving the garrison in the city as an "object" of surrender. The garrison brings surrender to Totleben, as the general who first laid siege to Berlin. The pursuit of the enemy is taken over by Panin's corps and Krasnoshchekov's Cossacks, they manage to defeat the Prussian rearguard and capture more than a thousand prisoners. On the morning of October 9, 1760, the Russian detachment of Totleben and the Austrians (the latter in violation of the terms of surrender) enter Berlin. Guns and guns were seized in the city, gunpowder and armory depots were blown up. An indemnity was imposed on the population. With the news of the approach of Frederick with the main forces of the Prussians, the allies, by order of the command, leave the capital of Prussia.

Having received news on the way that the Russians had abandoned Berlin, Friedrich turns to Saxony. While he was conducting military operations in Silesia, the Imperial Army ("Caesars") managed to oust the weak Prussian forces left in Saxony for screening, Saxony was lost to Frederick. He cannot allow this in any way: the human and material resources of Saxony are desperately needed for him to continue the war. November 3, 1760 at Torgau will be the last major battle of the Seven Years' War. He is distinguished by incredible bitterness, victory tends to one side or the other several times during the day. The Austrian commander Daun manages to send a messenger to Vienna with the news of the defeat of the Prussians, and only by 9 pm it becomes clear that he was in a hurry. Frederick comes out victorious, however, this is a Pyrrhic victory: in one day he loses 40% of his army. He is no longer able to make up for such losses; in the last period of the war, he is forced to abandon offensive actions and give the initiative to his opponents in the hope that they, due to their indecision and slowness, will not be able to use it properly.

In the secondary theaters of the war, Frederick's opponents are accompanied by some successes: the Swedes manage to establish themselves in Pomerania, the French in Hesse.

1761-1763: The second "miracle of the House of Brandenburg"

In 1761, there were no significant clashes: the war was waged mainly by maneuvering. The Austrians manage to capture Schweidnitz again, Russian troops under the command of General Rumyantsev take Kolberg (now Kolobrzeg). The capture of Kolberg would be the only major event of the 1761 campaign in Europe.

No one in Europe, not excluding Frederick himself, at this time believes that Prussia will be able to avoid defeat: the resources of a small country are incommensurable with the power of its opponents, and the longer the war continues, the more important this factor becomes. And then, when Frederick was already actively probing through intermediaries the possibility of starting peace negotiations, his implacable opponent, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, who once declared her determination to continue the war to a victorious end, dies, even if she had to sell half of her dresses for this. On January 5, 1762, Peter III ascended the Russian throne, who saved Prussia from defeat by concluding the Petersburg Peace with Frederick, his old idol. As a result, Russia voluntarily abandoned all its acquisitions in this war (East Prussia with Koenigsberg, whose inhabitants, including Immanuel Kant, had already sworn allegiance to the Russian crown) and provided Friedrich with a corps under the command of Count Z. G. Chernyshev for the war against Austrians, their recent allies. It is understandable why Friedrich fawned over his Russian admirer like never before before anyone else in his life. The latter, however, needed little: the rank of Prussian colonel, granted to them by Frederick, the eccentric Peter was more proud than the Russian imperial crown.

Asian theater of war

Indian campaign

Main article: Indian Campaign of the Seven Years' War

English landing in the Philippines

Main article: Philippine campaign

Central American Theater of War

Main articles: Guadalupe campaign , Dominican campaign , Martinique campaign , Cuban campaign

South American theater of war

European Politics and the Seven Years' War. Chronological table

Year, date	Event
June 2, 1746
October 18, 1748	Aachen world. End of the War of the Austrian Succession
January 16, 1756	Westminster Convention between Prussia and England
May 1, 1756	Defensive alliance between France and Austria at Versailles
May 17, 1756	England declares war on France
January 11, 1757	Russia joins the Treaty of Versailles
January 22, 1757	Union treaty between Russia and Austria
January 29, 1757	Holy Roman Empire declares war on Prussia
May 1, 1757	Offensive alliance between France and Austria at Versailles
January 22, 1758	Estates of East Prussia swear allegiance to the Russian crown
April 11, 1758	Treaty of subsidies between Prussia and England
April 13, 1758	Subsidy agreement between Sweden and France
May 4, 1758	Treaty of Alliance between France and Denmark
January 7, 1758	Extension of the agreement on subsidies between Prussia and England
January 30-31, 1758	Subsidy agreement between France and Austria
November 25, 1759	Declaration of Prussia and England on the Convocation of a Peace Congress
April 1, 1760	Extension of the union treaty between Russia and Austria
January 12, 1760	Last extension of the subsidy treaty between Prussia and England
April 2, 1761	Treaty of Friendship and Trade between Prussia and Turkey
June-July 1761	Separate peace negotiations between France and England
August 8, 1761	Convention between France and Spain concerning the war with England
January 4, 1762	England declares war on Spain
January 5, 1762	Death of Elizabeth Petrovna
February 4, 1762	Alliance pact between France and Spain
May 5, 1762

Kingdom of Naples
Sardinian kingdom Commanders

Friedrich II

1756 - 250 000 soldiers: Prussia 200,000, Hanover 50,000
1759 - 220 000 Prussian soldiers
1760 - 120 000 Prussian soldiers

1756 - 419 000 soldier: Russian Empire 100,000 soldiers
1759 - 391 000 soldiers: France 125,000, Holy Roman Empire 45,000, Austria 155,000, Sweden 16,000, Russian Empire 50,000
1760 - 220 000 soldier

Losses see below see below

The designation "seven-year" war received in the eighties of the eighteenth century, before that it was spoken of as a "recent war".