Militarization process. Militarization is what? The purpose of the abstract work is to lighten the problems and prospects for demilitarization of the economy as a global phenomenon inherent in many civilized countries.
The level of militarization of the economy. World economic development until the 90s was characterized by a significant level of militarization. The burden of military expenses under the influence of geopolitical changes decreased to 4.2% of the WMD in 1998 (6.7% in 1985). The number of employees directly in military production decreased to 11.1 million people. The greatest reduction occurred in Eastern European countries and in developing states.
Protection against a possible external attack is one of the most important functions of the state. However, the accumulated reserves of rocket-nuclear, chemical, bacteriological weapons still multiply exceed defense needs. The process of accumulation of weapons of mass lesion no longer only does not respond its main goal - the suppression of the enemy, but the further existence of a person on Earth is questioned. NATO countries in 1994. The number of combat aircraft, tanks on 8 and 20% exceeded the level of 1980.
In terms of military expenses in the world, the leading place belongs to developed countries - 1985 - 51.2%, 1998 - 60%, and in this subsystem, the share of NATO countries increased to 56.5%. If you evaluate the level of militarization of their farms in the magnitude of the share of GDP spent on the creation of arms and the content of the armed forces, it remains high enough in leading countries, fluent in 1-4% (USA - 3.8%, Japan is 1%). The largest funds for military targets are spent in the United States - about $ 300 billion, which is more than five times higher than the costs of the PRC and seven times - the expenses of France, Japan, Germany.
Western countries purposefully seek to preserve military advantage in global and regional scales. Although the theory of comparative advantages contains a provision that each participant receives benefits from trade, it also assumes that the stronger side receives great benefits. The basis of the system of "free world" has always been the dominance of American military force. The desire of the Soviet Union to create military parity, movement and war for national liberation were considered as a threat to the global system of "free world" and were accompanied by military preparations and wars from the West.
Military spending substantiates the need to protect Western values \u200b\u200bin non-vocabulary, human rights and national minorities in these countries, combating terrorism. The NATO Strategic Concept provides for the use of its armed forces outside the block of responsibility of the block and is aimed, essentially to ensure a new world order.
Military spending in developing countries constantly increased, mainly at the expense of the countries of Eastern and South Asia. The highest share of military expenses in GDP is noted in Saudi Arabia - 13.5%. Large scale of military expenses - non-disabilities for countries where almost all major development problems are not solved. According to the assessment of the World Bank, a third of the external debt of some leading developing countries can be attributed to the account of weapons import.
The influence of military expenses for economic development. In terms of its sizes, military spending exceeds many articles on civil goals: education, health care, economics. They amounted to in 1983 - 15.5%, in 1993 - 11.5%, in 1999 - 16.6% of global government expenditures.
Military industrial complexes (military-industrial complex), consisting of the largest companies producing weapons, military top, part of the state apparatus, scientific institutions, ideological structures, which are all combined by common interests, are the main stimulistics of military relics. Both international and national Mercines do not have a clear structure and recorded status, but have a serious impact on the adoption of military-political and military-economic decisions. Their core make up military industrial concerns, which are particularly interested in sustainable demand for military products.
At the heart of the Militarization process is a military economy associated with the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of special products intended to meet the military needs of the state. The funds allocated by the state for military needs are neither social nor economic blessing. Military products do not serve for no production tools or to meet the urgent needs of people. Therefore, the distraction of material resources for military purposes makes direct damage to the socio-economic well-being of nations. True, there are other order approval. They are based on the Keynesian position on the stimulating effect of government spending on the level of national income, regardless of which sector of the economy, investment activity is increasing, employment.
Indeed, military demand can revive the economy for a while, but ultimately militarization generates many problems for economic development. A comparative analysis of a number of researchers in different countries has shown that the costs of forming public capital (road construction, housing, etc.) have almost twice as much positive impact on economic growth (the level of national income) than stimulating the military industry.
1. The growth of military expenses is one of the reasons for increasing the budget and education budget deficits covered mainly by issuing government securities. As the experience of previous decades has shown, the scarce financing of military expenditures not only does not contribute to the stabilization of the economy, but in the long-term aspect it turned out to be a factor that enhances the imbalance of various links of the economy. Under certain conditions, the issuance of state securities for covering or reducing the budget deficit leads to an increase in accounting rates. This means the rise in the cost of the loan, which leads to the braking of the investment process. In the context of the internationalization of economic life, the negative role of budget deficits in countries with multiplicative effect, negatively affects the state of the global economy.
2. An increase in the costs of military R & D reduces the possibilities of economic growth and development. Military studies and development absorb 26% of world costs for research purposes, which is approximately 10% of the total military spending. They are busy with 1/4 scientists and engineers in the world. A number of Western economists emphasizes the leading role of military R & D in determining the directions of development of science and technology. In their opinion, technical tasks are solved in military R & D, the results of which are subsequently used to introduce into the production of the latest technological processes. But it does not take into account that the use of NTP results to build the arms race is an unproductive spread of productive, forces. Military studies limit scientific research with such tasks and characteristics that are not necessary for civilian use. Only 10-20% of military R & D in recent years finds civilian applications. However, in the last fifty years, this figure declined. The adaptation of the results of military R & D for peace needs requires additional research and development.
3. Important importance for economic development has country finite use of funds allocated for military purposes. Thus, approximately 95% of the budget of the US Department of Defense is spent in the American industry, while over 80% of NATO's military budgets are spent beyond these states. It follows from this that the same percentage of the increase in defense expenditures is more referred to at the farm of small countries, which, moreover, have less opportunities to organize an independent military industry.
The same adverse effect on its economy is experiencing developing countries that have no military industry. They get the least benefits of increasing military spending. It is more difficult for them to use research achievements available to the military sector in the civil industries. The growth of military spending inevitably leads to a reduction in investment and in general prevents economic growth.
Main weapon suppliers. Large industrial countries Part military expenditures on the production of weapons and military equipment compensate for foreign supplies on a commercial basis. The volume of export deliveries in the 1990s declined sharply: 1.5 times compared with the mid-80s (Table 14.5).
Table 14.5.
Arms exports (prices 1997)
| Subsystems | billion dollars | % | billion dollars | % | billion dollars | % |
| Peace | 88,9 | 100,0 | 51,5 | 100,0 | 55,8 | 100,0 |
| USA | 24,0 | 27,0 | 28,2 | 54,6 | 26,5 | 48,6 |
| Britannia | 7,4 | 8,3 | 5,5 | 10,7 | 9,0 | 16,2 |
| France | 8,0 | 9,0 | 4,6 | 8,9 | 9,8 | 17,6 |
| USSR / Russian Federation | 31,2 | 35,1 | 2,8 | 5,4 | 2,9 | 5,1 |
| PRC | 2,6 | 2,9 | 1,2 | 2,4 | 0,5 | 0,9 |
And with T about the Ch N and K: "ME and MO", № 8, 2000. P. 79.
In the composition of the largest suppliers, significant changes have also occurred. Absolutely and relatively sharply decreased supplies of the USSR / Russian Federation. In the mid-80s, the USSR military supplies exceeded American, and in the late 90s, military exports of the Russian Federation lost 9 times to American. The US share has half of world weapons supply.
In many parts of the world, the understanding of the need to demilitarize the economy, reconverting military production. The translation of the military economy to the production of peaceful products is associated with significant difficulties. They are associated not only with the technological reorientation of the production facilities of military enterprises, but also with a significant retraining of labor, which requires large funds. As studies show, as a result of a reduction in 17 countries with the largest military budgets in 1994-2002. For 1/4 military spending in the first five-year period, the growth of the world product is expected to decrease in more than 1% and an increase in unemployment in industrialized countries by 0.3-0.7%. Then the increase in VMP will return to the previous level, mainly under the influence of trade growth.
The translation of the military industry for peaceful rails affects not only economic growth and employment problems. The need for it is dictated by the needs of solving environmental, demographic and other problems, which have long been beyond the scope of national states.
Questions to the topic
1. What are the characteristic features of economic growth in the 50-60s and
70-90s in the world and in separate subsystems?
2. What influence the socio-economic crisis of East
european countries on global economic growth in the 90s?
3. How has the sectoral structure of the world economy changed?
4. What changes occurred in the structure of foreign trade in the world and
economy subsystems?
5. Analyze the scale of R & D in the world, the spread of scientific
technical achievements in the subsystems of the world economy.
6. Expand the effect of R & D on economic development.
7. How has the level of militarization of the world economy changed in
80-90s?
8. Analyze the effect of military expenses on social
economic development of the world.
9. Tell us about the problems of the conversion of military production.
Militarization (from Lat. Militaris - Military) - extension by the state of military power in order to prepare the war. Militarism is a system of economics, politics and ideology.
After signing in 1919 by the Versailles peace treaty, which summed up the I World War, Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Forces Marshal Ferdinand Fosh said: "This is not a world, but a truce for twenty years."
At the same time, Soviet Russia, which turned out to be in international isolation, sought to find a weak link in a hostile European environment. Such a weak link became humiliated Germany.
It was Germany that became the first major European country, which established diplomatic relations with Soviet Russia.
According to the Versailles peace treaty, Germany was forbidden to have tank compounds and a military-sulfur fleet. Ho very soon in the world they started talking about the fact that in the factories of the former cannon king of Germany, the children's wheelchairs, which, if desired, can quickly turn into a machine gun, are produced, and in the German design bureaus instead of the tractors models new designs of tanks are being developed.
The USSR helped in the preparation of qualified pilots and tank workers in Germany. The pilots were preparing in Lipetsk, and tankers were trained in Kazan. At the same time, one of the first marshals of the USSR M.N. Tukhachevsky improved his military qualifications in Germany.
Hitler went to power under the slogan: "Down with Versailles!"
The truce was fragile. Already at the beginning of the 30s, the ghost of World War II stood before the world, which did not want to notice the world. The first foci of war appeared: Japan won China, Italy captured Ethiopia.
In 1936, Hitler and Mussolini took part in the Spanish Civil War. It was in Spain for the first time in open the interests of Hitler and Stalin collided. War 1936 - 1939 In Spain, he was in some way the test of combat power, a view of the new technique of two great powers.
A spyware arose on this background. The newspaper "Pravda" of June 11, 1937 wrote: "Thousands and tens of thousands of spies and scouts will be sent to capitalist states to each other.
In the brightest historical examples, Comrade Stalin in the report at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU (b) on March 3, 1937 showed and proved: there is every reason, from the point of view of Marxism, assume that in the "rear of the Soviet Union bourgeois states should be inwarded by twice, three times more pests, spies, saboteurs and murderers than in the rear of any bourgeois state. "
In the first speech of Hitler in front of the leading modshtack generals on February 3, 1933 (in Berlin), it was stated that the purpose of his policy is to "conquer political power again. All state leadership should be aimed at this (all organs!). In the same speech, he outlined the contours of his program.
"I, within the country. Complete transformation of current domestic political conditions in Germany. HE to endure any activity of media of thoughts that contradict this goal (pacifism!). Who will not change their views, he must be confused. Destroy Marxism with the root. Raising young people and all the people in the sense that only the struggle can save us ... death sentences for the betrayal of the state and the people. Castle authoritarian state leadership. Elimination of cancer - democracy. In foreign policy. Fight against Versailles. Equality in Geneva; It is meaningless if the people are not configured to fight. Acquisition of allies. Economy! The peasant must be saved! Colonization policy!
In the development of new lands - the only opportunity to partially cut the unemployed army again ... The construction of the Wehrmacht is the most important prerequisite for the achievement of the goal - the conquest of political power. A general military service must be introduced again. Ho Previously, state leadership should take care that the military before the appeal is not already infected with the pacifism, Marxism, Bolshevism, or at the end of the service were not poisoned by this poison.
How should the political power be used when we get it? Now it is still impossible to say. Perhaps the restoration of new sales markets maybe - and, perhaps, it is better - the seizure of a new living space in the east and his merciless Germanization. "
After establishing the fascist dictatorship, the German economy became subjected to restructuring. Fascist Germany was preparing for war. In the secret law "On the defense of the Empire", adopted on May 21, 1935, it was said that the general authorized in the field of the Military Economy of the Mines should "deliver all the economic forces on the service of war." This corresponded to a whole system of measures that had the goal of organizing mass production of weapons and military materials and a reduction in peaceful industries.
The colossal sums of Germany spent on weapons. The means for this were removed by continuous tax increases, the use of unemployment insurance funds, disability and old-age, forced fees "for winter assistance", "Air Fleet", "On Anti-Friendly Defense".
Germany sought to reduce the importation of food and expand export to ensure the necessary amount of currency for an increasing importation of strategic raw materials: iron and copper ore, lead, oil, bauxite, etc. In 1934, a new mine plan was put into effect, according to which the importation of any materials or food could occur in a centralized manner in the provision of the necessary currency.
The German export began to grow, and since 1935 some excess of exports over import was achieved.
In August 1936, Hitler in the Memorandum on Economic Preparations for War Note a wide program of events. He began with a statement that "Germany will always be considered as the main center of the Western world when reflecting the Bolshevik Natiska" and that in Europe "there is only two states who can seriously resist Bolshevism, is Germany and Italy ... and in general, except Germany And Italy, only Japan can be considered a force capable of withstanding the world threat. "
Hitler argued that if the German armed forces were not turned into a largest army in the world in the shortest possible time, then Germany will perish. "In this case, the principle works: what will be missed in a few months in the context of the world, it will not be possible to crash over the centuries."
In September 1936, at the next congress of the fascist parties in Nuremberg, Hitler proclaimed a "four-year plan", which was supposed to provide Avtarkia ("Self-Defense") of the German economy, i.e. Full independence from foreign markets. The head of the Four Devices of the Four Summer Plan was delivered by Goering, the author of the slogan "Cannons instead of oil". This agency began to conduct active activities to limit consumption and organized the production of certain types of local raw materials and substitutes - synthetic rubber, synthetic gasoline, art
fibers. The "four-year plan" did not meet hopes imposed on him. A year later, at the secret meeting of the military leaders, Hitler acknowledged that the achievement of autarchia for a number of decisive types of raw materials, as well as food - unrealistic.
Agriculture for militarization purposes was supplied under the control of the management of the so-called imperial food class, the main body of the fascist state on the "regulation" of agriculture.
State regulation provided for the transformation of each peasant in the "Soldier of the Power Front", which was obliged to sow what the leaders of the "Imperial Food Society" were dictated. Agricultural products were at strict accounting, and most of her peasant had to take at extremely low prices. In the account was not only every peasant cow, but also every chicken.
According to the Law of 1937, "On Ensuring Normal Agriculture", even the so-called hereditary courtyard could take away from the owner for failure to fulfill the instructions of the "Imperial Food Class". The mandatory surrender of the entire bread grain was introduced, which caused a particularly strong dissatisfaction of the peasants, since most of the peasant farms in Germany had a livestock bias. The peasants usually did not produce grains for sale.
Military factories worked in three shifts, and working light, food and a number of other industries were occupied by an incomplete week. Enterprises that have made consumer items have completely stopped work due to the lack of imported raw materials.
The Law of 1934 "On the Organic Building of the German Economy" created six imperial business groups: industry, trade, banks, insurance, energy, craft, which was subordinate to dozens of industry and territorial economic groups. At the head of the imperial groups, the largest German industrialists were delivered with broad powers - Schroeder, Krupp and others.
State entrepreneurship has taken a significant scale. Herman Gering Verke concern, created in 1937, in a short time turned into one of the largest industrial associations in Germany.
Hundreds of thousands of small enterprises owners were ruined as a result of the importance of import and distribution of raw materials.
The union of Germany gave the strongest impetus to its economic and political development.
The German Reichstag adopted a number of laws aimed at strengthening the unity of the empire and the general-amperistic state apparatus. In 1871-73 A single gold currency was introduced, which unified by the monetary system of Germany. In 1874, the general amperm post was created. In 1875, civil and criminal codecs were adopted for the whole country. Throughout all 70s. The formation of an imperial control system was also established, the organization of which was not provided for by the Constitution. During this period, a number of sectoral bodies of public administrations of ministries were arose: Foreign Affairs (1871), Imperial Railways (1873), Justice (1877), internal affairs (1879).
The formation of a single domestic market, the establishment of administrative legal uniforms created prerequisites for the rapid development of the economy. The industrial revolution in Germany as a whole began relatively late. But this circumstance concluded a number of advantages. It coincided with major scientific and technical discoveries and widespread introduction into the production of progressive technological processes. Therefore, industrialization in Germany took place with the advanced experience of developed countries, and the industry was built on the basis of modern technologies. New inventions were introduced into communications techniques, electrical engineering, organic chemistry, etc. The structure of the industry has changed, new industries related to the production of machines, electrical engineering, chemistry, etc. emerged and quickly developed. At the same time, the heavy industry developed more intense other and dominated the rest of the sectors economically. This allowed Germany for the last quarter of a century to turn into a strong capitalist power and navigate in the first place in Europe in terms of industrial production.
A characteristic feature of the development of capitalism in Germany in the last quarter of the XIX century. Not only high rates of industrialization, but also the accelerated process of processing capitalism into imperialist with the domination of monopolies and the financial oligarchy.
High rates of country industrialization, concentration and; The centralization of industry and capital led to changes in the structure of German capitalism. Antended weave of industrial capital with banks, contributed to education financial and industrial oligarchy,submitting almost the entire economy of the country. By focusing in their hands key positions in the economy, it began to have a significant impact on the internal and foreign policy of its state. The need for new sources of raw materials and sales markets pushed the German financial and industrial oligarchy to colonial seizures.
The desires of a major bourgeoisie coincided with the policies of German Junkers, who had sought to create a military police state with a huge army and a powerful fleet. The combination of Germany on a Prussian basis led to the fact that the military system has long been established in Prussia began to spread to the whole country. The huge part of the budget was on the content of the army and the police, whose powers to maintain "order" were steadily expanded. The political structure of the United Germany allowed military institutions to focus in their hands significant power, influencing the overall political course and solving specific issues.
The presence of a huge, well-trained army combined with the economic aspirations of the financial and industrial oligarchy allowed Germany in a short time to create its colonial empire and at the same time expand economic expansion in the Ottoman Empire, China, South America.
The changes in the economic sphere had a significant impact on the social structure of the German society. Political parties were expressed by the interests of various segments of the population.
The interests of large Junkers expressed party of conservatives.She opposed the expansion of the competence of the imperial authorities and was a guarantee for feudal remnants and privileges.
The main political force supporting the course of the imperial government was the party "Free conservatives"or imperial.The social database of this party amounted to UNCERSO and the financial and industrial oligarchy. From this party, the imperial government of Bismarck was mainly formed.
Another support of the government was the party national Liberalov,expressing interests of large and partially medium bourgeoisie.
Some opposition showed a party of shallow and middle bourgeoisie - party progressors.She opposed the increase in the army and military spending, for some democratization of public life.
The interests of the working class and fine-bourgeois layers represented social Democraticthe consignment. The influence of this party in the working class for a year has steadily increased, which was reflected in the elections to Reichstag.
In the created conditions, Bismarck, who was a permanent chancellor of the empire from 1871 to 1890, spent through the Reichstag so-called exceptional law.According to this law, which operated up to 1890 g, all socialist organizations bloomed, the spread of socialist ideas was prohibited, and membership in such organizations was punishable with imprisonment and a large fine. However, Bismarck understood that the influence of the new batch was due to the difficult position of the working class. By acting by the whip and gingerbread method, it became the initiator of laws whose purpose was to improve the position of the working class. In 1883, a law on insuring in case of illness was adopted, in 1884, insurance against accidents was introduced, and in 1889 the law on disability insurance and old age. Despite this, he failed to achieve the impact of socialists in the working class environment. In 1884 in the elections, despite the branch of the party, 24 Socialists were elected in Reichstag, and in 1890, 20% of voters voted for them.
Thus, by the beginning of the XX century. Germany has become economically developed, the Military-minded state in which the weak sprouts of democracy barely made their way. Militaristic interests of the financial and industrial oligarchy Tuck, whether Germany to war for the redistribution of peace. In the First World War, Germany suffered a crushing defeat, and the empire ceased to exist.
The concept of "human development" was introduced into the International Political and Scientific Turnover by the United Nations in the framework of the preparation of world reports on the development of a person, publishing the UN Development Program (UNDP) since 1990. In the Russian Federation, such reports are prepared under the auspices of UNDP annually since 1996. In the first Russian report, a fundamental idea was formulated: the highest goal of economic and social development is to expand opportunities for each person to realize its abilities and aspirations, to lead a healthy, full, creative life. Personality, individuals are considered in the indicated concept not only as the most important factor of human development, but also as the main consumer of its results and achievements.
From this it follows that social and economic development in the country, which is guided by the concept of human development, should be aimed at ensuring the widest possible material opportunities to meet the basic needs of a person in obtaining high-quality education and health services, as well as ensuring human security in the widest understanding. of this term. The maximum possible pluralistic public system is needed to ensure the choice of choice for each person. Finally, in society, the unconditional priority of the rights and interests of the person should be implemented, the provision that collective, public and government interests are just an aggregated representation of individual interests. In other words, the development of human potential is impossible outside a democratic, oriented priority of individual human values \u200b\u200bof the system.
Considered in the context of the ideology of the human potential population, the quantitative and qualitative potential of its reproduction (demographic potential) are the condition, the basis and purpose of the development of society and the state.
In the Constitution of the Russian Federation, it was proclaimed that Russia and citizen's rights and citizens are recognized in Russia and citizen according to the generally recognized principles and norms of international law.
Demographic processes in a narrow understanding cover the reproduction of population: the natural movement of the population (fertility, mortality, marriages, widths, divorces) and migration.
Currently, the Russian Federation has developed an extremely unfavorable situation in the field of population reproduction, which can be characterized as a delayed demographic crisis leading to irreversible negative demographic consequences.
Indeed, since 1992, in Russia, the death rate of the population exceeds the birth rate, i.e. The numbers of the dead exceed the numbers born, resulting in a natural loss of the population. For 1992-1999, she amounted to 5.8 million people. Thanks to the positive balance of external migration in the amount of 3.1 million people, the total population reduction during this period amounted to only 2.7 million people.
The most negative feature of the modern demographic crisis of Russia is unprecedented high mortality of the population, especially in working ages. At the same time, mortality of men in working ages is 4 times higher than the mortality of women. And the first place was the mortality rate from unnatural causes: accidents, poisoning, injuries, murders, suicides.
It is characteristic that the steady increase in mortality in Russia has been observed since 1965, which distinguishes Russia from countries with traditional market economies. If in 1965 the total mortality rate of the Russian population was 7.6 people per 1000 people in the population, then in 1988 he grew up to 10.7 promil, and in 1999 - 14.7 ppm. From 1989 to 1999, the absolute numbers of the dead rose from 1, 6 million people to 2.1 million people, i.e. 1.3 times.
The growth of mortality in working ages and increased mortality of men lead to an increase in the population of the number of widows and minors orphans, a predominance in senior age groups of lonely women.
The growing mortality of the Russian population in the 90s occurs against the background of a sharp deterioration in the health and growth of disability. Over the past decade, incidence increased more than 2 times, and in all age groups of the population, including pregnant women and children. Deep concern causes an increase in infectious diseases, especially tuberculosis, syphilis, AIDS, as well as the growth of mental illness. Increases consumption of alcohol and tobacco. The deterioration of health negatively affects the possibilities of the socialization of children, increases the loss due to temporary disability in production, leads to inside age.
No less unfavorable situation was observed in the 90s in the field of fertility.
Reducing the fertility occurred in Russia since the beginning of the 20th century. Moreover, five times its reduction was acute, crisis.
The first sharp drop in fertility was observed during the first world and civil wars, after which the pre-crisis birth rate was almost recovered.
The second fall occurred in the 30s and was associated with industrialization, collectivization of agriculture and degradation, the fight against dissent, almost destroyed the large-scale, multi-octal, rural patriarchal family and made a less sustainable urban family.
The third decline in the birth rate is associated with the Great Patriotic War and the massive gap of marital connections, military losses. In the 1950s, the birth rate was partially recovered and the annual number of born ranged from 2.5-2.8 million people.
The fourth decline in fertility was observed in the 60s and is explained by the "echo of war" - a reduction in female coogort of fertile age due to the low birth rate of the Great Patriotic War period, as well as the mass involvement of women in the scope of wage labor. Moreover, since the early 60s, Russia moved to the two-order model of the family and the narrowed reproduction of the population (when the generation of children is less than generations of parents). In the 2nd half of the 70s, the annual number of births were established at 2.1-2.2 million children. In the 80s, the annual number of births increased to 2.5 million people as a result of an active demographic policy (the introduction of prolonged partially paid childcare leaves for workers and students, reducing the intervals between children's births), as well as due to increased increase in The number of women of fertile age (the consequences of the "baby-boom" of the 50s).
The last crisis reduction of fertility is observed since the beginning of the 1990s. From this time, the massive two-dimensional family model is replaced with a mass single family with an increase in the number of childless families. The number of born is reduced from 1.8 million in 1991 to 1.2 million in 2000. Demographers explain the current drop in the birth rate with a decrease in the number of women in the most fertilies (the second "echo of war"), the continuation of the global trend of the demographic transition (long-term decline in fertility and mortality and the growth of life expectancy) and the beginning of the second demographic transition in Russia.
Reducing the population is accompanied by its aging.
In early 2000, the share of the population of the retirement age reached 20.6%, having increased from 11.7% in 1960, i.e. increased by 1.8 times. At the same time, the share of children in the population declined from 30% to 20%.
The elder of the Russian population causes the growth of society's expenses for the maintenance of pensioners, requires an increase in insurance premium tariffs and makes reforming the pension system with an objective necessity.
Currently, the Russian Federation has developed a relatively favorable situation in the field of labor and employment.
As of January 1, 2001, the population of the working age in the Russian Federation was 87.1 thousand people or 60.1% of the country's total population.
According to the latest forecast of the Russian State Statistics Committee from the Base of 2000, with the expecting a general reduction in the population of the country, the population of working age and its share in the entire population will increase until 2006 and will amount to 89.8 million people and 63.6%, respectively. This temporary phenomenon is due to the peculiarities of the population's reproduction in the 80s, when the next demographic wave of increasing fertility was observed as a result of an active demographic policy.
However, since 2006, with all variants of the forecast, the reduction in the number of working ages is inevitably. In 2016, only 80.4 million people of working age will remain (59.9% of the total population), i.e. In general, for the period from 2006 to 2016, the reduction will be a huge amount of 9.7 million people.
Even more negative changes are expected in the population younger and older than working age. The number of children will be constantly reduced from 27.9 million people in 2001 to 20.6 million people in 2016, and the elderly will grow from 29.9 million to 33.4 million for the same period. This means a reduction in the population in general, especially its able-bodied part and the increase in the number of pensioners in the following years.
This forecast is drawn up with regard to the trends of the migration movement for Russia.
To maintain the necessary number of the country's population, a socially oriented economic and active family and demographic policy, aimed at reducing mortality, morbidity and an increase in the duration of the active, creative life of a person, creating favorable conditions for improving the quality of life of families and the most complete realization of families in children, Attracting labor immigration and the creation of conditions for the consolidation of migrants in Russia.
- Competitive advantages of Russia
- large and mainly complex mineral resources, having in some categories of world importance;
- the presence of world-class meets, and sometimes superior to its industrial and scientific and technical capacity;
- numerous labor resources with a high general education level and good vocational training;
- Large scale of the main production facilities in industry and transport, allowing to save on investment costs.
At the same time, weaknesses affect the foreign economic relations and the entire economy of the country, to eliminate which in a short time without major financial and other costs, it is impossible.
Namely:
- the predominance of non-competitive on modern standards of technologies and methods for organizing production, its extremely high resource intensity and costs (including technologically advanced sectors);
- colossal depreciation of fixed assets, limited internal accumulation capabilities;
- weak motivation and low labor intensity, inertia of the bureaucracy of the economy, as well as considerable socio-political instability;
- sharp unevenness in the economic development of regions and gaps in the standards of life between them;
- Tangible especially after the collapse of the United Nations Hospital Complex of the USSR, the irrationality of the production, communication areas (including export), high proportion of long-distance transportation on transport;
- a large dependence of the standards of life and production modernization from import and attract foreign loans, a complex position with payments through the large scale of external debt;
- Gap after the collapse of the SEA and the USSR of the established lines of economic and trade relations, the lack of business marketing experience in new conditions, as well as adequate infrastructure.
In case of the beginning of the transition period, the comparative advantages of the Russian economy were either used limited and ineffectively, or not used at all. The crisis led to the fact that the competitive advantages had been lost step by step. Critically low increase in proven geological reserves, outflows abroad of scientific and technical nearers and R & D personnel, care products from the sphere of production in a commercial business, an overestimated level of wages in monopolized industries and a corresponding decline in international competitiveness. The physical aging of fixed assets of industry, agriculture, transport leading to their disposal or emergency is accelerated.
The main goal of the development of WES is the equal integration of Russia into the system of international economic relations in order to use the benefits of international division of labor in the interests of the country.
- Voluntary barter
The concept of Barter came to us still from the ancient times, as we all know well, money as a method of exchanging has come to the story after Barter has already existed for more than 100 years. It was found that the use of money or coins is much easier than the exchange of products.
Barter is mainly used in business related to products or services, because they have something that can be sold and exchange after money. Simply put, barter is the exchange of goods and services without paying money.
Many of us in youth used Barter, not even knowing about it. For example, if you ever gave your friend comics in exchange for his basketball ball, you made a barter. If you helped the neighbor to paint the fence in exchange for a chocolate cake or if the gentleman at the crossroads helped repair your car in exchange for your lawn mower, you were also involved in the barter process.
Some large companies use Barter for many years. This is what your business must include, because Barter has its advantages, for example, will help increase sales and save capital in some situations. As mentioned earlier, we all committed a barter in certain situations, but this is a great rare that the concept of Barter survived to this day.
With the help of new technologies used in business now, the computer can track barter news and lists, it will help increase the growth of this branch of commerce. Notice, now there is such a concept as the "barter exchange", which is very different from "saving money."
What is a "barter exchange". These are groups of people who create a market for merchants in order to commit Barter. Barter transactions also contribute to the growth of this industry. Today the barter industry is a multi-million dollar industry, and it has become a very successful way to help the growth of companies that contribute to trade without investment.
There is no doubt that Barter is a big business, and it grows every year.
The main reason why businessmen use barter is to preserve the cash resources. Since capital is vital for business, this is an excellent strategy in order to save it. Nevertheless, Barter is not only the preservation of capital, this is the sale of your goods and services and normal transportation when products and services exchange, instead of sharing money.
Barter definitely attracts customers, so the turnover will be good. Use barter is much easier than to invest. This is an acceptable way absolutely for all businessmen.
Barter promotes sales, if the entire capital has been aimed at creating, strengthening or buying a company. It is also good because it opens up other prospects for business. Where sales are small, Barter's ability to prove that sales are not yet lost and in fact will increase sales.
This is a possible expansion, because I frees the company's budget for other needs as well as reduces excessive contributions to securities. The fact that a business can grow without investing in it additional capital makes Barter an attractive project in need of serious study.
- Privatization results
Privatization is often subject to sharp criticism. It is argued that the new owners of property received it not according to merit, and at the expense of personal connections and informal relations with the first persons of the state and their relatives. The appearance of oligarchs in Russia is associated with privatization, too strong and unfair economic stratification of the population of Russia. A significant part of the population of Russia perceives the privatization of the 90s as an immoral, criminal. In the people, even her began to call "tag".
On the other hand, according to Vladimir Mau, Privatization was carried out in an extremely difficult economic, financial and political situation: the confrontation of the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation with the President and the Government made it difficult to create a legal framework and institutional reforms; The government has experienced strong lobbying pressure on the part of the Supreme Council; At the time of the beginning of privatization, the state was not able to effectively monitor his property, spontaneous privatization became a massive phenomenon - the seizure of control over the enterprises of their directors committed not to the development of enterprises, but to rapid profits.
According to Vladimir Mau, the main economic task of privatization was to increase the efficiency of the economy through the establishment of a private ownership of production. While in certain areas of the economy (maintenance, trade), this task was quickly solved, in industry and agriculture, the necessary effect was achieved much slower, largely due to the fact that Mau said, privatized enterprises went to the ownership of labor collectives , that is, under the control - and in the future and in the property - their directors. However, Anatoly Chubais himself later said that privatization was carried out with the sole purpose of preventing the arrival of the Communists to power.
Privatization in Russia began after the adoption of the USSR law "On the State Enterprise (Association)" in 1988. At this stage, it was carried out in the absence of the necessary regulatory framework. At the same time, its real scale remained unknown. According to OECD estimates, by the summer of 1992 (the beginning of the implementation of the privatization program) more than 2,000 enterprises were privatized "spontaneous". Only in 1991, the development of legislation on the privatization of the Russian Federation of the Russian Federation of 3/7/1991 "On the privatization of state and municipal enterprises in the Russian Federation" (as amended from 5/7/1992) began.
Subsequently, Russia occurred to the transition from socialism to capitalism.
In Russia, a group of the so-called "oligarchs", which possess the property, which went to them for relatively little money.
Privatization compromised himself in the eyes of many Russians. The political rating of one of the main ideologues of the privatization of Anatoly Chubais is still one of the lowest among Russian political figures.
At the beginning of 2008 - on the agenda - the same problems: now the privatization of social services, social guarantees of the state, since it is clearly visible by the inconsistency of state management of the social sphere. And the new tool for privatization is likely to be personalized budget financing (state-owned personal financial liabilities - GIFO), or otherwise public certificates (for example, the generic certificate, etc.), which will allow (while maintaining public financing) to work in the field of services to private enterprises.
About 80% of Russian citizens in 2008 continue to consider privatization of dishonest and willing to one degree or another to revise its results.
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Militarization as a term, leaves roots in the mid-19th century. For the first time, it was applied to describe the ideological and political and economic situation in France, during the rule of Napoleon III. Militarization as a concept is a state ideology and policies, subordinate to the militarization of society and the economy, where the main task is to build up military power, and aggressive wars serve as a major way of conducting foreign policy. In the economy, first of all, the interests of the military-industrial complex, its share, usually occupies the largest part among other industries.
The population is subjected to significant information and psychological processing, a permanent image of an external enemy is given, active measures are carried out on the patriotic education of the younger generation.
His apotheosis, militarization reached in the 20th century, when the two largest conflicts occurred in the history of mankind. According to the summary estimates, for the first and second world wars, the population of the planet lost about 70 million people only killed, even more than 150 million remained crippled.
Militarization of leading powers of early 20th century
The accumulated contradictions between the largest powers, conjugate with their accelerating militarization, led to the so-called arms race at the very beginning of the 20th century.
The arms race is a very closely associated with militarization. The term is a large-scale extension of opposing powers or military blocks, the quantity and quality of military equipment that stands in service with military equipment in an attempt to achieve military parity or superiority over the opposing party.
Large powers of the time, after the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, began a systematic increase in the number of artillery systems of small, medium and large calibers in their armies. At the beginning of the 20th century, the so-called dreadnight race began, when not only recognized maritime powers (United Kingdom, USA, France, Germany, Japan), but also secondary players on the expanses of the World Ocean (Russian Empire, Spain, Italy, Ottoman Empire, Austria Hungarian Empire, Brazil, Chile, Argentina), began to actively increase the number of large armored ships with powerful artillery arms.
One of the main reasons for the beginning of the First World War was the desire of Germany, to increase its military fleet to the values \u200b\u200bof comparable to the UK fleet, which threatened the very existence of the latter as a great power.
A characteristic rate of militarization, is the increase in the number of the most powerful armies of continental powers of that time (France, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Great Britain and Russia), from 2,111,000 people in 1896, up to 3,184,000 people in 1912 and subsequent mobilization 74 Million people in the course of the First World War.
Militarization before World War II
The countries of the Entente who won in the First World War, the entire period before the Second World War had very strong and well-completed armies, developed military industry and uninterrupted access to all necessary resources. France was strong on the continent, while the United Kingdom and the United States had a very strong military fleet.
Holders of the axis, as applicants for regional and world domination, had to rebuild the economy for the militarist boom in the conditions of resource restrictions, and in the case of Germany, and in terms of ban on large-scale military production.
Both Japan and Germany, who did not have the opportunity to surpass the well-established hegemon powers in the amount of arms, the rate was made on their quality, as well as innovative tactical actions when applied.
Militarization of society in the countries of the axis before the war was total. This was achieved by distributing mass propaganda aimed at explaining the need to carry out the comprehensive wars, the permissibility of extreme cruelty in the name of the high goals and the Great Future. The general psychological impact on the population was intended to provide the military economy of the aggressor countries with a huge number of personnel, as well as to prepare the hordes of soldiers who are unquestioned to fulfill the orders of their leaders aimed at global expansion.
In the Soviet Union, preparation was launched for an estimated great war since the late 20s. In the economy, universal industrialization was conducted, aimed at an extensive increase in military production. Engineering has been actively developed, as the basis for the production of armored vehicles and aviation. Among young people, patriotic education was actively practiced, the rules of the GTO were introduced to prepare citizens to the military and labor service in the harsh conditions of military time. Militarization of the country for 10 years made a huge jump.
As a result of the broken war, between two to the extremes militarized military blocks, huge stocks of weapons in the hands of ideologically processed soldiers caused enormous damage to the opposing parties. The Second World War, became the most bloody conflict in the history of mankind, having carried out more than 50 million people and leaving more than 100 million seriously edged.
Politarization Policy in the Cold War Epoch
The expression of the Cold War was first applied by George Orwell. He described the relationship of the estimated 2-3 "monstrous superposts" with nuclear weapons, which in view of its absolute destructive power, could not be applied without the complete destruction of conflict participants. The state of the Cold War, assumed the presence of a tight agreement between these countries on the non-use of Yao in relation to each other and conducting an indirect struggle among themselves, without participation in open conflicts.
Inscript ideological disagreements between the two unique superpowers, which were the USSR and the United States after the end of World War II, led to a monstrous twist of militarization in the post-war time. For the Cold War, both a race among ordinary weapons and a rocket-nuclear race in the field of strategic domination.
Given the huge scientific and technical and economic potentials of the two superpowers, they produced enormous weapons (calculated on the new world war), to the detriment of the material welfare of citizens.
Immediately after the end of the Second World War, due to the superiority of the USSR in the field of conventional weapons in Europe, the US began to prepare plans for conducting extensive nuclear bombing of the Soviet Union in the event of war. US President Duight Eisenhawer, dubbed this approach "massive retribution".
However, soon after the appearance of the USSR of its own nuclear weapons and a large number of jet fighters capable of intercepting American bomber, American stars began to look for a new suitable doctrine.
With the development of intercontinental ballistic missiles, such a doctrine has become nuclear deterrence in guaranteed mutual destruction. Both parties contributed enormous material resources into the creation of a rocket-nuclear arsenal guaranteed a retaliatory blow to the enemy and applying unacceptable damage to it, in the case of the first strike from the enemy.
A particularly important place in such a doctrine was discharged to create a significant amount of nuclear submarines with ballistic missiles on board (RPKSN), as well as a whole fleet of submarine hunters for RPKSN and surface ships. Increased RPKSN secrecy compared to the rest of the Yao based bazing platforms, suggests insensitivity to the first nuclear strike from the aggressor and implies the application of a guaranteed response strike.
Of course, to fulfill the pace of such active arms extension, a large voltage of the economy was required. The Soviet Union has always noticeably lagged behind the United States in the field of economy, but in the field of armaments, starting from the 70s, parity was observed. This was achieved at the expense of the total domination of the military-industrial complex in the Soviet economy, when up to 40-50% of GDP went to military needs. Militarization of the state reached a threatening scale.
A ruin and meaningless from a universal view of the waste of resources for the needs of militarization, it became one of the main reasons for the strongest economic crisis, which caused the collapse of the USSR and the end of the Cold War.