The use of metaphors in speech. Metaphor and speech style The starting point for metaphor is the characterization function. The meaning of the metaphor is limited to indicating one or a few signs

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Kryukova Natalia Fedorovna. Metaphorization and metaphoricity as parameters of reflective action in the production and reception of text: Dis. ... dr. filol. Sciences: 10.02.19 Tver, 2000 288 p. RSL OD, 71: 03-10 / 167-4

Introduction

Chapter one. The system of thoughtfulness as a space of metaphorizations and metaphoricity 19

1. The role and place of metaphorizations and metaphoricity in the action of a person with the text 23

2. Correlation between different organizations of reflection when a person acts with text 27

Chapter two. The composition of metaphorizations and metaphoricity as a set of textual means opposite to the means of direct nomination 55

1. Tropean means of awakening reflection 62

2. Phonetic means of awakening reflection 112

3. Lexical means of awakening reflection 123

4. Syntactic means of awakening reflection 147

Chapter three. Metaphorization and metaphoricity in the system of acting with text when setting on different types of understanding 163

1. The place of metaphorizations and metaphoricity in the production and understanding of texts built with a setting for semantising understanding 166

2. The place of metaphorizations and metaphoricity in the production and understanding of texts built with a mindset on cognitive understanding 178

3. The place of metaphoricity and metaphorization in the production and understanding of texts built with installation on the switchboard.

understanding 201

Chapter four. Metaphorization and metaphoricity in different sociocultural circumstances 211

1. Socio-historical similarities of metaphorizations 216

1.1. Socio-historical similarities of metaphorizations in national cultures 217

1.2. Socio-historical similarities of metaphorizations in different historical circumstances 226

1.3. Socio-historical similarities of metaphorizations in different traditions of text and style formation 231

2. Metaphoricity as a criterion of the mentality of various groups of people 235

Conclusion 256

Literature 264

Introduction to work

This dissertation is devoted to the issue of improving understanding with certain modifications of the text, in particular, with various modifications of metaphorization. This topic directly focuses on the study of the interaction between the structure of language and the function of communication, i.e. to study one of the most important philological problems: "a person as a subject of speech activity." It seems possible to show the meaning of metaphorization in understanding the semantic structure of the text to the extent that understanding the text acts as a cognitive process. In this work, it is intended to investigate the effect of using metaphorical forms of text construction to optimize such cognitive work.

From the very beginning, the difference between the acts of understanding stimulated by the metaphor should be emphasized: 1) understanding the metaphor with its semantics and 2) understanding the meanings in the text thanks to metaphor. Traditionally, the achievement of understanding is considered elementary semantisation metaphor, equating its meaning to the meaning of some non-metaphorized segment of the speech chain when building a "direct" variant of predication. This work assumes a broader interpretation of the role of the cognitive metaphor precisely in the semantics of the whole text, when it is necessary to understand the meanings, meta-meanings and artistic idea, which is real difficulty serious reading.

On the other hand, declaring the universality of metaphorization and metaphoricity as multifaceted linguistic phenomena inextricably linked with the emergence and existence of man (as evidenced by everything, from language units - remnants of old stopped metaphorizations, to the books themselves, which are at the same time products of the printing industry with very specific physical

characteristics, and what makes the reader "experience" the most complex collisions and their solutions), this work is limited to considering their most traditional forms, which usually constitute the subject of study of stylistics, that is, figures of speech and tropes.

The problem of understanding as a whole is one of the most urgent, since the phenomenon of understanding itself is still poorly understood, although one of the most attractive for researchers due to its exceptional importance for the effectiveness of many forms of human activity. Currently, in the modern methodology of science, questions are being addressed about the place and status of understanding in the processes of cognition (see: Avtonomova, 1988; Bystritsky, 1986; Lektorsky, 1986; Popovich, 1982; Tulmin, 1984; Tulchinsky, 1986; Shvyrev, 1985), on the relationship between knowledge and understanding (see: Malinovskaya, 1984; Rakitov, 1985; Ruzavin, 1985), understanding and communication (see: Brudny, 1983; Sokovnin, 1984; Tarasov, Shakhnarovich, 1989), understanding and picture of the world (see: Loifman, 1987), understanding and explanations (see: Wright, 1986; Pork, 1981; Yudin, 1986), etc. The fact is that the problem of understanding is interdisciplinary in nature, and first of all it is attributed to the competence of linguistics , psychology and hermeneutics. Within the framework of these disciplines, a rich empirical material has been accumulated, which until now has not yet received a satisfactory philosophical generalization, and the very interdisciplinary nature of the problem of understanding has given rise to many approaches to solving it and, accordingly, to a relatively large variety of theoretical concepts that are not always consistent with each other. the phenomenon of understanding (Nishanov, 1990):

understanding how to decode

understanding as translation into "internal language"

understanding as interpretation

understanding as a result of an explanation

understanding as evaluation

understanding as comprehension of the unique

understanding as a synthesis of integrity, etc.

Undoubtedly, however, is that understanding is associated with the mastering by the subject of knowledge about the material and spiritual world. Hegel also drew attention to the fact that "any understanding is already the identification of the 'I' and the object, a kind of reconciliation of those parties that remain separated outside this understanding; what I do not understand, do not know, remains something alien to me" (Hegel, 1938: 46). Thus, the science of understanding should be considered as one of the branches of human studies.

It is also quite obvious that the process of understanding is closely related to the functioning of the language, with communicative activity. The exchange of texts presupposes both their generation and transmission on the part of the producer, and the establishment of a textual meaning on the part of the recipient. At the same time, most researchers agree that understanding is not a specific procedure for mastering linguistic formations, that its competence extends to all phenomena of the surrounding reality, including those not expressed in language or text. At the same time, the problem of understanding a language, a text, despite the fact that it acts as only one of the sides of the general theoretical problem of understanding, is, from the point of view of science, one of the most urgent research tasks. Its relevance is determined by "the greater clarity of the difference between the" signifier "and the" signified "in the language in comparison with other normative value systems. Therefore, in a certain respect, the understanding of the linguistic sign turns out to be the key to understanding other elements of culture" (Gusev, Tulchinsky, 1985, p. 66 ). In addition, the analysis of the problem of understanding linguistic formations, texts is essential for the humanities as a whole, because, as A.M. Korshunov and V.V. Mantatov justly point out, “a text is a primary

and the starting point of any humanitarian knowledge. "The problem of the text" provides some basis for the implementation of the unity of all forms of humanitarian knowledge, the unification of its methodology. Many epistemological questions of all the humanities converge on the problem of the text "(1974, p. 45).

It should be emphasized that the question of the essence of understanding the text is one of the most difficult in philology. This is evidenced by the fact that there is still no "hard" definition of the understanding of the text. There are several such definitions, and they are all limiting, i.e. allow only to distinguish "understanding of the text" from other subjects of study - in particular from thinking, consciousness, knowledge. This is the opinion of G.I.Bogin (see: 1982, p. 3) and he himself defines understanding as the mastering by the mind of what is present or given implicitly (see: 1993, p. 3). In most cases, this "implicit" means meaning(thought) of the text. So, seeing the specifics of understanding in revealing the meaning hidden in texts, V.K. Nishanov concludes that objects that, in principle, are not carriers of meaning, generally speaking, cannot be understood (see: 1990, p. 79). In other words, the concepts "meaning" and "understanding" turn out to be "correlative and cannot be considered in isolation from each other. Outside understanding, there is no sense just as understanding is the assimilation of some meaning" (Gusev, Tulchinsky, 1982, p. 155); and if by meaning we mean that configuration of “connections and relationships between different elements of a situation and communication that is created or restored by a person who understands the text of a message” (Shchedrovitsky, 1995: 562), then what are the conditions for this creation or restoration? "The meaning appears under certain conditions. In particular, for the appearance of meaning there must be some situation, either in activity, or in communication, or in both. In this case, the situation must be the material to which the reflection is directed" (Bogin, 1993 , pp. 34-35). Thus, in the study of the

The problem of understanding the text is impossible to do without the concept of reflection, which is most important here, defined in this case as a link between the extracted past experience and the situation, which is presented in the text as a subject for mastering (see: Bogin, 1986, p. 9). Reflection is the basis of the processes of understanding the text. At one time, the author of this work showed that such a figure of speech, as a metaphor, "awakens" more easily and faster than other figures, stimulates reflective processes and therefore represents the most effective means of understanding the meaningfulness of a text (see: Kryukova, 1988). The metaphor itself is an objectified reflection, its hypostasis. Moreover, under the metaphor was understood not only such a figure of speech as the metaphor proper (actually a metaphor), but also other means of text-building that have this ability. All textual means (syntactic, phonetic, lexical, phraseological, derivational and even graphic), capable of awakening reflection and thereby objectifying explicit and implicit meanings, have similarities in this respect and therefore are able to be categorized. In this regard, it is legitimate to raise the question of the category of metaphorization as a meta-means of understanding.

As for the degree of elaboration of the problem, no full-scale generalizing works, considering metaphorization as the hypostasis of reflection, have yet been created. However, a substantial amount of literature has been accumulated, directly or indirectly related to the subject of research: all literature starting with Aristotle is based on metaphor.

The study of metaphor in the days of Antiquity is carried out within the framework of one of the sections of rhetoric and poetics - the theory of tropes, and is associated with the specification of the types of figurative meanings and the construction of their classification.

Philosophers of the modern era considered the metaphor an unnecessary and unacceptable adornment of speech and thought, a source of ambiguity and delusion (J. Locke, T. Hobbes). They believed that when using the language

it is necessary to strive for precise definitions, for uniqueness and certainty. This point of view for a long time slowed down the study of metaphor and made it a marginal area of ​​knowledge.

The revival of metaphor begins around the middle of the 20th century, when metaphor is understood as a necessary and very important element of language and speech. The study of metaphor becomes systematic, and metaphor acts as an independent object of research in different disciplines: philosophy, linguistics, psychology.

For example, within the framework of linguistic and philosophical research, the problems of semantics and pragmatics of metaphor are widely discussed: the distinction between literal and metaphorical meanings, metaphorical criteria, metaphor and conceptual system, etc. (A. Richards, M. Black, N. Goodman, D. Davidson, J. Searle, A. Vezhbitska, J. Lakoff, M. Johnson, N.D. Arutyunova, V. N. Telia, etc.). The subject of psychological study of a metaphor is its understanding; Among the directions of her research should be highlighted: discussion of the stages of the understanding process (H. Clark, S. Glucksberg, B. Keysar, A. Ortony, R. Gibbs, et al.), the study of the specifics of understanding the metaphor by children (E. Winner, S. Vosniadou , A. Keil, H. Polio, R. Honeck, A. P. Semenova, L. K. Balatskaya and others); the study of the factors that determine the "success" of a metaphor and affect its understanding (R. Sternberg, et al.).

Until now, modern science does not have a single point of view on understanding metaphor as a mental phenomenon. One of the latest modern classifications of existing concepts of metaphor, developed by G.S. Baranov (see: 1992), comprises the following groups: 1) comparative-figurative, 2) figurative-emotive, 3) interactionist, 4) pragmatic, 5) cognitive, 6) semiotic. Nevertheless, none of these concepts fully explains all the specifics of metaphors, the criterion of metaphoricity, and does not reveal the mechanism of understanding the metaphors.

metaphoric expressions, since it does not consider the metaphor simultaneously with its communicative, cognitive, aesthetic and other combined functions.

In modern works on the metaphor, three main views of its linguistic nature can be distinguished:

metaphor as a way of existence of the meaning of a word,

metaphor as a phenomenon of syntactic semantics,

metaphor as a way to convey meaning in a communicative act.

In the first case, the metaphor is viewed as a lexicological phenomenon. This approach is the most traditional, since it is most closely related to the concept of language as relatively autonomous from speech activity and a stable system. Accordingly, the representatives of this approach believe that the metaphor is realized in the structure of the linguistic meaning of the word.

The second approach focuses on the metaphorical meaning arising from the interaction of words in the structure of a phrase and a sentence. It is the most common: for it, the boundaries of the metaphor are wider - it is considered at the level of syntactic combination of words. This approach contains more dynamism. His position is most clearly reflected in the interactionist theory of M. Black.

The third approach is the most innovative, since it considers metaphor as a mechanism for forming the meaning of an utterance in various functional varieties of speech. For this approach, a metaphor is a functional and communicative phenomenon that is realized in a statement / text.

The first two approaches led to the development of the third, which can be called functional and communicative. Several

theories that provided the methodological basis for this approach. First of all, it is the pragmatic and cognitive theory of metaphor.

Pragmatic theory metaphors are the pillars for a functional hike. Its main position is that the metaphor does not arise in the semantic area of ​​the language, but in the process of using the language in speech. The area of ​​action of a living metaphor is not a sentence, but a speech utterance: "A metaphor exists in individual sentences only in laboratory conditions. In everyday life, a metaphor arises in informal and formal communication to fulfill certain communicative goals" (Katz, 1992, p. 626). The pragmatic theory is an essential addition to the semantic-syntactic approach and allows you to transfer the study of metaphor to the level of speech utterance, using all the main provisions of the theory about the semantic mechanisms of the emergence of metaphorical meaning.

At the heart of all views on the nature of metaphor is the provision on the metaphorical nature of thinking as such. Metaphorical thinking receives the highest development in the field of verbal art as a modeling system that assimilates all objects of being available to man (see: Tolochin, 1996, p. 31). The consequence of the fact that the modeling of concepts in artistic speech is as creative as possible is the freedom of artistic speech, in comparison with other functional speech varieties, from the restrictions imposed by linguistic consistency. Establishing a correspondence and continuity between the linguistic systematicity of a metaphor and its complex and, at first glance, difficult to semanticize speech forms allows cognitive theory metaphors. It is based on the position that in the mind there are deep structural relationships between groups of concepts, which make it possible to structure some concepts in terms of others.

and thus predetermining the all-pervading nature of metaphors in speech and its diversity in specific manifestations, as well as the ease with which metaphors are perceived and understood in many types of speech.

However, the very fundamental idea of ​​cognitive science that thinking is the manipulation of internal (mental) representations such as frames, plans, scenarios, models and other structures of knowledge (as, for example, in the case of metaphorical concepts), indicates the obvious limitations of this a purely rational understanding of the nature of thinking (see: Petrov, 1996). Indeed, if through metaphorical concepts it is still possible to explain the mechanism of the formation of associative links that make it easy to create and understand metaphorical expressions in non-artistic forms of speech, then it is hardly possible to find a single matrix conceptual basis in all the complex variety of artistic metaphors.

Fictional text is a special form of communication. The future development of his concept by the so-called "dynamic" stylistics is rightly associated by researchers with the study of text activity, the transition from actualization to contextualization, with access to the extralinguistic area, into the conditions of the textual activity of the subjects of communication, in the process of which a person cognizes and transforms himself (see: Bolotnova, 1996; Baranov, 1997). This activity is of the most creative nature, which allows us to call literature the most "unreliable" language, generating in the mind the most whimsical and subjective associations that cannot be described in the framework of linguistic experiments (see: Bayer, 1986). As E. Husserl noted, “the originality of consciousness in general lies in the fact that it is a fluctuation proceeding in various dimensions, so that there can be no question of a conceptually accurate fixation of any eidetic con-

secrets and directly constituting them moments "(Husserl, 1996, p. 69).

Incessant fluctuations and deviations are indispensable characteristics of the metaphorical process observed at three interrelated levels (see: MasSogtas, 1995, pp. 41-43): 1) metaphor as a linguistic process (a possible movement from an ordinary language to a diaphora-epiphora and back to an ordinary one language); 2) metaphor as a semantic and syntactic process (dynamics of the metaphorical context); 3) metaphor as a cognitive process (in the context of increasing evolving knowledge). All these three aspects characterize the metaphor as a single process, but it is extremely difficult to explain it in terms of all three at once. However, this is possible provided that the linguistic plan is overcome by reintegrating semantics into ontology (see: Ricoeur, 1995). An intermediate stage in this direction is reflection, that is, the connection between the understanding of signs and self-understanding. It is through self-understanding that it is possible to understand what exists. The one who understands can appropriate the meaning to himself: from the alien he wants to make it his own; expansion of self-understanding he tries to achieve through understanding the other. According to P. Ricoeur, any hermeneutics is clearly or not explicitly understanding oneself through understanding another. And any hermeneutics appears where a false interpretation took place before. If we take into account that interpretation is understood as the work of thinking, which consists in deciphering the meaning behind the obvious meaning, in revealing the levels of meaning contained in the literal meaning, then we can say that understanding (and first misunderstanding) appears where the metaphor takes place.

The foregoing allows us to assert that the activity approach will enrich the functional-communicative theory of metaphor and will contribute to its study as a component of the semantic structure of the text, as well as

use it as a theoretical basis for this research, formed by a number of important provisions. The first of these is determined by the general intentional the pathos of the existential analysis and activity approach of A. N. Leontiev, which consists in the obligatory objective orientation of the consciousness of a person who creates himself in the process of free activity, which is a connecting thread between the subject and the world. Further, we should mention P. Ricoeur's hermeneutics, "grafted" by him to the phenomenological method in order to clarify the meaning of existence, voiced in the form of the postulate: "to be is to be interpreted." The works of domestic researchers, in which interpretation is considered as expressed reflection and reflection itself is considered both the process of activity and the most important moment in the mechanisms of development of activity, on which all, without exception, the organization of reflection depends, i.e. all its * objectification, including objectification in the form of understanding the meaning of texts (Moscow Methodological Circle, created by G.P. Shchedrovitsky; Pyatigorsk Methodological Circle under the leadership of Prof. V.P. Litvinov; Tver School of Philological Hermeneutics under the guidance of Prof. G. Bogin) indicate that meanings act as organizations of reflection, and if they are not indicated in the text by means of direct nomination, they cannot be seen otherwise than through reflective acts. The organization of reflection is understood as its other being, associated with the restructuring of some components of the action (i.e., multiple acts that have the characteristic of action).

Thus, the above facts speak about the relevance of the dissertation research, determined by the need to reveal the specifics of the mechanism of metaphorization as an outlet to the meanings of the text and to study the principles of organizing understanding in a metaphorical text environment, which will allow a more specific approach to the consideration of such important

problems of hermeneutics and general linguistics, such as understanding the text, mastering the meanings and the multiplicity of interpretations.

Scientific novelty the conducted research is as follows:

for the first time, methods of organizing reflection are considered when a subject acts with a metaphorized text;

metaphorization and metaphoricity are for the first time described as parameters of reflective action for understanding implicit meanings, which unfolds within the space of systemic thought activity;

the classification of the means of metaphorization as different ways of organizing reflection in the course of human action is proposed with text;

explores the features of metaphorization and metaphoricity as different otherness (hypostases) of reflection in texts with a setting for different types of understanding;

the reasons for the similarities and differences of metaphorization and metaphoricities, acting as manifestations of the human spirit in different socio-cultural circumstances, are clarified.

The object of this study are the acts of awakening reflection and the processes of its organization when the subject acts with metaphorized texts.

Research material there are texts of various metaphorization richness and genre-style orientation.

The specificity of the research object determined the choice of the main methods and techniques: modeling (schematization) as the main method based on the systemic-research-activity methodology developed by G.P. Shchedrovitsky and allowing an approach to the problems of reflection on the text; deductive-hypothetical method; linguistic analysis of the means of metaphorization; interpretation of text with elements of semantic

tico-stylistic analysis, as well as using the universal reflective technique of the hermeneutic circle.

The above considerations dictate goal of this thesis: to determine the role and place of metaphorization and metaphoricity against the background of the reflective foundations of understanding as one of the processes of thinking associated with linguistic expression. "". "" ".; .-;": / "" No..;.;.

The degree of elaboration of the problem requires the solution of the following research problems in order to achieve the set goal.

Necessary:

to associate understanding with the concept of reflection, which is basic for it;

to distinguish between metaphorization and metaphoricity, indicating at the same time their relationship and interdependence as parameters of reflective action in the production and reception of the text;

consider metaphorization as the act of awakening reflection;

consider metaphoricity as the reason for the awakening of reflection;

to identify various options for fixing reflection on the three belts of system thinking activity as different compositions of metaphorization and metaphoricity;

to analyze different groups of textual means of indirect nomination in order to identify the characteristic fixation of reflection, awakened by them as specific ways of stimulating reflective processes;

determine which means of metaphorization work most effectively in creating the optimal metaphor, characteristic of texts intended for different types understanding;

identify the features of the similarities and differences of metaphorization in the socio-cultural context.

The set goals and objectives determined the general logic of the research and the structure of the work, which consists of an introduction, four chapters and a conclusion. The first chapter defines the role and place of metaphorization and metaphoricity in the action of a person with a text as different ways of organizing reflection in the space of systemic thought activity. The second chapter examines the main groups of means of metaphorization from the point of view of their ability to awaken reflection, which gives different organization in the space of systematic activity. The third chapter examines the dependence of the organization of reflection on metaphorization and metaphoricity in the system of action with the text when setting on different types of understanding. In the fourth chapter, an attempt is made to analyze the reasons for the similarities and differences between metaphorization and metaphoricity as hypostases of reflection in different socio-cultural circumstances. The text of the thesis is supplied with a glossary, which includes the interpretation of the main working terms.

As a result of the research, we have formulated and are being defended the following theoretical provisions:

all traditional means of metaphorization (tropes and figures of speech), which provide different ways of optimizing the processes of sense-thinking and meaning-making when the subject acts with the text, are classified depending on the peculiarities of fixing the reflexion they awaken, namely: tropic and phonetic means act as "figurative" means giving the reactivation of subject representations; lexical means - as "logical" means giving direct insight into metasimics; syntactic means - as "communicative" means giving the discretion of textual characteristics;

the optimal choice of means of indirect nomination determines the habitual metaphor of the text, which is a system of text characteristics, intentionally or unintentionally built by the producer for the recipient to act with the aim of improving understanding;

texts intended for different types of understanding, depending on the characteristics of the processes of making sense of meaning and making sense of meaning, are characterized by specific metaphoricity (redundancy / entropy for semantic understanding; explication / implication for cognitive understanding; automation / actualization for distributive understanding), optimally created by a certain group means of metaphorization;

the nature of the metaphor considered as a concrete objectification of reflection, i.e. one of the ways of its organization, indicates both the universality of the category of metaphorization and the specificity of metaphor, which is an indicator of the mentality of various groups of people.

The theoretical significance of the dissertation is determined by the results of research regarding the characteristics of different groups of means of metaphorization, the specificity of the metaphoricity of texts with an orientation towards different types of understanding, the originality of metaphor in different socio-cultural circumstances. The results obtained are a contribution to the linguistic theory of metaphor, presenting new data on the function of one of the important means of text-building in cognitive work, which is present in the intellectual system "man - text". For the first time, the effect of using metaphorical forms of text construction to optimize the understanding of a text as a cognitive process based on a systemic-research methodology, which allows describing different ways of organizing reflection, awakened by a metaphorized text, according to the criterion "measure and method of metaphorization" is investigated.

The practical value of the work lies in the fact that as a result of the study, data were obtained (classification of the means of awakening reflection, their characteristics regarding the ability to create a special metaphor, as well as to provide similarities in metaphorizations in different national cultures, historical circumstances and traditions of text-and-style education) that have of particular importance when performing analytical procedures in relation to the text (assessment of the impact of the text, automation of procedures for working with text, literary criticism, editing, translation analysis of the original, etc.) and offering specific indicators that can be evaluated, criticized or optimized. The data obtained on the metaphorical means of text-building, addressed to the products of the metaphorical context, in the conditions of pedagogical, mass or scientific and technical communication, can contribute to the work on programming the impact or readability of the text.

The role and place of metaphorizations and metaphoricity in the action of a person with text

The very term "metaphorization" is ambiguous, defining phenomena of a different nature. So, speaking about the metaphorization of meaning in semantics, metaphorization is understood as the process of producing a complex semantic structure based on initial units, and the metaphor itself in this case is a semantic derivative, a linguistic phenomenon of a derivational nature (see: Murzin, 1974, 1984). In psychology, metaphorization is a universal brain mechanism that fully implements a system of rigid and flexible links that provides creative thinking. In stylistics, metaphorization is attributed to pictorial categories as ways of figurative representation of the realities of the artistic world, perceived as peculiar zones of poetic semantics, where speech means manifest varieties of artistic generalization (see: Kozhin, 1996, pp. 172-173). As you can see, differences in concepts are often determined by a scientific approach. At the same time, all definitions point to the ability of the category of metaphorization to give ideas about the formation of something new.

In the psychological theory of intellectual activity, there are two dominant points of view on understanding and the corresponding two meanings of the term "understanding": 1) understanding as a process; 2) understanding as a result of this process. GI Bogin distinguishes, respectively, the procedural and substantial types of understanding (see: Bogin, 1993). The result of understanding is meaning as some knowledge that is included in an already existing system of knowledge or correlates with it (see: Rogovin, 1969; Kornilov, 1979; Kuljutkin, 1985). Sense as an ideal mental model is created (constructed) by the subject in the process of understanding the text; at the same time, metaphorization plays the role of a building program, "and such cognitive structures as knowledge, opinions, sensory images, as well as mental models built by the subject in previous acts of understanding" act as a "building material" (Nishanov, 1990, p. 96), i.e. all the basic experience of an individual accumulated in life. Metaphorization rather determines a dynamic, rapidly changing picture of the highlighting of individual fragments of this experience in the course of reflective processes, rather than some kind of motionless integrity. In the process of communication, it is more a speech act than a speech object; something that the speaker and the listener do together. In the situation of the text recipient's activity, this is not a frozen scheme, but a constant process of change, correction of the course of the direction of reflection, which ultimately leads to the discretion of certain text meanings programmed by the producer.

Metaphorization sets countless loops of reflection, one of which is presented in the diagram of G.I.Bogin (1993, p. 35-36) in the form of a circle, conditionally starting from the outward going ray of reflection from the ontological structure, i.e. that world of meanings in which a person lives, using the fruits of his life. experience. This outward-going ray is directed to the material being mastered (reflective reality) and carries the components of semantic experience, which, meeting with elements of the material of reflective reality, are mutually re-expressed in acts of reflection, which leads to the appearance of minimal semantic units - noem. Then there is a metaphorization of meaning, similarity is created or meanings are born. After that, a fundamentally different, inwardly directed ray of reflection continues its movement from reflective reality (the material being mastered). This is actually a directed ray, since it is directed by noems, and itself directs noems, which in its course form a configuration of connections and relations, i.e. meanings that settle in the corresponding hummocks of the human soul, i.e. the ontological construction of man. Thus, in just one round of reflection, the so-called metaphorical shift is realized three times, to use Black's terminology (see: Black, 1962).

We can say that in the production and reception of a text, we are dealing with the same type of spiritual activity, called understanding and representing an infinite number of rounds of reflection within the same hermeneutic circle. In both the case of the producer and the recipient, the process of understanding lends itself to description within the framework of the process of metaphorization, but the results will be different. The difference lies in the fact that if the recipient is faced with the task of understanding the meanings objectified in the text, that is, in fact, to understand the author, then for the producer, understanding primarily lies in self-understanding, which ultimately also leads to an understanding of socially adequate meanings (here it is appropriate to recall the increasingly insistent thesis about the isomorphism of the creator and the created, allowing an inversion in the interpretation of the opposition "author - text"; compare Jung's deliberately pointed formulation, according to which Goethe did not create Faust, but the soul component of Faust was created by Goethe (see: Toporov, 1995, p. .428)). One way or another, we do not contradict P. Ricoeur's assertion that the only chance to understand existence is to understand oneself through understanding another (see: Ricoeur, 1995, pp. 3-37). As for the results of the process of understanding, for the recipient of the text it will be a new generalized meaning, and for the producer - a new metaphor, that is, a new, metaphorized text. The metaphorical nature of the text then represents a system of circumstances for action with a mindset to improve understanding. That is why it (metaphoricity) is the most important feature of a literary text (see: Tolochin, 1996, p. 20), distinguished by a special semantic and content richness, the development of which is possible only as a result of a complex and multifaceted process of understanding, absolutely excluding the removal of reflection. Metaphoricity, on the other hand, creates the conditions for the appearance of meaning as a certain situation in communication; it serves as material for constructing reflective reality, to which the outward-going ray of reflection is directed. From the elements of reflective reality that have been touched by the ray of reflection (meaningful experience) emanating from the ontological structure of the subject, noems are born. This makes it clear why the metaphor is never equivalent to literal paraphrasing. Thus, M. Black has always strongly objected to any substitutional view of metaphor.

Tropean means of awakening reflection

Let us consider a number of concepts of metaphor in order to better understand other means of metaphorization (tropes and figures of speech), since all the main theories of metaphor are in one way or another of a general linguistic nature.

Emotive theories of metaphor. They traditionally exclude metaphor from scientific descriptive discourse. These theories deny any cognitive content of the metaphor, focusing only on its emotional nature; consider the metaphor as a deviation from the linguistic form, devoid of any meaning. This view of the metaphor is the result of a logical-positivist attitude to meaning: the existence of meaning can only be confirmed empirically. Thus, the expression “sharp knife:” makes sense, since this “sharpness” can be tested during tests, but a sharp word could already be considered a completely meaningless combination of words, if not for the semantic shade conveyed exclusively by the emotional coloring of this phrase. By focusing only on the emotional nature of metaphor, emotive theories do not in any way touch upon the very essence of the mechanism of metaphorization. As a basis for criticism in this case, one can note the ignorance of the presence of a common feature that determines the similarity of the figurative basis between the direct and figurative meaning of the word, which was mentioned on p. 52 (for its interpretation as a movable feature from the standpoint of mental activity, see p. 47). The concept of tension, according to which the emotional tension of a metaphor is generated by the anomalous combination of its referents, stands on the same positions. It is assumed that the recipient is tempted to relieve this tension, trying to figure out what the anomaly itself is. This concept leaves the metaphor with a single hedonistic function: to please or entertain; regards it as a purely rhetorical device. This theory explains the emergence of "dead" metaphors by a gradual decline in emotional intensity as the frequency of their use increases. And since, within the framework of this theory, the metaphor appears as something false and false due to the fact that the comparison of its referents is alien, the conclusion immediately suggests itself that as the metaphor becomes more familiar, its tension decreases and the falsehood disappears. E. McCormack puts this conclusion in the following way: “... a strange state of affairs is created: a hypothesis or political insight can become truths ... through repeated use of a metaphor. Due to prolonged violation, the tension falls, the preponderance comes in favor of the truth and the statements become grammatically correct. Truth and grammatical deviations turn out to be dependent on emotional stress "(MasSogtas, 1985, p. 27).

Despite serious shortcomings, both theories are correct in that metaphor does often contain more charge than non-metaphorical expressions, and as the frequency of its use increases, this charge loses its potency. Indeed, one of the essential aspects of metaphor is its ability to evoke feelings of tension, surprise and discovery in the recipient, and any good theory of metaphor must include this aspect.

The theory of metaphor as substitution (substitutional approach). The substantive approach is based on the fact that any metaphorical expression is used instead of an equivalent literal expression and can be completely replaced by it. The metaphor is a substitution of the right word for the wrong one. This view is rooted in Aristotle's definition: a metaphor gives a thing a name that actually belongs to something else. The cognitive content of a metaphor can simply be considered its literal equivalent. At the same time, to the question "why do we need strange intricate statements when everything can be said directly?" - the theory of substitution answers as follows. A metaphor is a kind of puzzle presented to the recipient for decoding. In this form, the metaphor gives new life to old expressions, dressing them in beautiful expressions. M. Black formulates this thought as follows: “And again the reader enjoys solving the problem or admires the author's skill to half-hide and half-reveal what he wanted to say. And sometimes metaphors cause the shock of a“ pleasant surprise ”, etc. If in doubt about a particular linguistic feature, see how much pleasure it gives the reader. This principle works well in the absence of any other evidence "(Black, 1962, p. 34).

The theory of substitution assigns metaphor the status of a simple ornamental means: the author prefers the metaphor to its literal equivalent only because of stylization and embellishment. Metaphor is not given any meaning other than making speech more pretentious and attractive.

Comparative theory. The traditional theory of replacement for the most part served as the basis for the development of another widespread theory, the beginnings of which can be found even in the "Rhetoric" of Aristotle and in the "Rhetorical instructions" of Quintilian. From the point of view of this theory, a metaphor is in fact an elliptical construction, an abbreviated form of simple or artistic comparison. So when we call someone a "lion," we are actually saying that that person is like a lion. We know that in reality he is not a lion, but we want to compare some of his features with the features inherent in lions, but we are lazy to do this explicitly.

This view of metaphor is more subtle than the theory of simple substitution, since it assumes that a metaphor compares two things in order to find similarities between them, and not only replace one term with another. Thus, the metaphor becomes an elliptical comparison, in which elements like "like" and "like" are omitted.

The comparative approach assumes that the meaning of any metaphorical expression can still be expressed by a literal equivalent, since a literal expression is one of the forms of explicit comparison. So when we say "this person is a lion," we are actually saying "this person is like a lion," which means that we take all the characteristics of a given person and all characteristics of a lion, comparing them in order to reveal similar ones. These similar characteristics become the basis of the metaphor. Thus, comparative theory relies on some preexisting similarity of characteristics inherent in two similar objects. These similar features are subsequently explicated when comparing all the characteristics of the subjects of the metaphor. Since the comparison can be literal, a stylistic function is also prescribed for the metaphorical definition.

The place of metaphorization and metaphoricity in the production and understanding of texts built with a setting for semantic understanding

Semantic understanding (Pi) is built on direct nomination and is a case of referring the signified to the signifier as a known sign form. Although this understanding by association is the simplest, reflective processes are already involved in it, since it rather quickly leads to the appearance of the experience of semantization, stored in memory in the form of a certain lexicon. Any new act of semantization, thus, forces one to specifically reflect on the existing experience of semantization. In general, Pi assumes the following mutually coordinated actions: perceptual recognition (based on association), decoding (as a moment of the simplest sign situation) and reflection on the experience of memory (internal lexicon) (see: Bogin, 1986, p. 34). The last aspect turns out to be especially remarkable in the sense that it is important where, in fact, understanding of the text takes place, i.e. when misunderstanding arises and then is overcome. Reflection on the sign form leads to meaningfulness, i.e. on what is to be understood in the text.

The above does not contradict the criticism of the compositional theory of meaning (see: Turner & Faucormier, 1995), the essence of which boils down to the fact that meaning is not compositional in the sense accepted in semantics. There is no encoding of concepts with words, or decoding of words into concepts. According to the compositional theory, conceptual constructions are preceded by linking components, and the formal expression of such a conceptual structure names or in some other way indicates suitable components. In fact, conceptual constructions are not of a compositional nature, and their linguistic designations do not indicate their components. For example, there is an intuitive idea that words like safe, dolphin, shark, child correspond to basic meanings, and when combining them, we combine the meanings of these words in accordance with the straightforward logic of compositionality. In practice, we get completely different integrated meanings of words like dolphin-safe, shark-safe, child-safe. So, dolphin-safe, when it is written on tuna cans, means that dolphins are not harmed when fishing for tuna. Shark-safe in connection with swimming means that conditions are created under which swimmers will not be attacked by sharks. Child-safe in connection with rooms is used as an indication that these types of rooms are safe for children (they do not contain the typical dangers that children can face). Such two-word expressions are the result of conceptual integration: the attributes of the original concepts intersect in a larger structure. In each case, the understanding must extract from the minimal premises much broader conceptual structures and, with the help of his imagination, discover a productive way of integrating them into the relevant scenario. Such methods may differ for particular cases. So, in dolphin-safe tuna, the dolphin acts as a potential victim. In dolphin-safe diving, in connection with human divers who search for mines under the protection of dolphins, the latter act as guarantors of the safety of people. Dolphin-safe diving can also be used in connection with dolphin imitation where diving safety is ensured in a dolphin-associated way, etc. In other words, this cannot be explained from the standpoint of the theory of compositionality, besides, a change in the position of the word safe (for example, safe dolphin) will entail a different set of potential meanings.

The expression dolphin-safe in all of these cases only motivates, but does not compositionally predict the much richer conceptual intersection required to understand this expression. The one who understands in all these cases must "unpack" the minimal language keys in order to reach broad conceptual aggregates on the basis of which the intersection can be made. In the case of dolphin-safe, the end-point scenario (tuna can, diving people, dolphin mimics) is absolutely necessary, regardless of how much it is associated with the dolphin domain and the security entry frame.

Cruelty-free (about shampoos), a variety of compositional integration in waterproof, tamper-proof, child-proof or talent pool, gene pool, water pool, football pool, betting pool can also be cited as such examples.

The illusion of the central position of compositionality makes possible the erroneous point of view that such examples are borderline or exotic and should not be viewed in terms of "nuclear semantics". According to this illusion, the dolphin-safe or football pool functions on different principles than the red pencil or green house, which serve as canonical examples. However, non-compositional conceptual integration is also required for these "core" cases (see: Travis, 1981). Red pencil can represent a pencil with a red painted wood surface; a pencil that leaves a red color on the paper; lipstick, etc. The script required for such integrated values ​​is no simpler than that required for dolphin-safe cases. The cognitive processes required for constructing such integrated meanings are the same as for interpreting supposedly exotic examples. Some authors (see: Turner & Fauconnier, 1995; Lan-gacker, 1987) believe that even these prototypical shapes themselves represent intersections, constructed on the basis of filling the slots of some "default" frame. Of course, frequently repeated intersections in similar situations can be stored in memory in integrated forms and used accordingly1. But this concerns differences in the degree of convention or familiarity, but not the mechanisms for achieving integration. Just as a blackbird is supposedly stored as a whole unit, a black bird with a default padding of "black feather" can be stored as a whole unit. Understanding the black bird in any other sense will require ongoing integration when first encountering such a case. However, as you get used to it, this will also be stored in memory as a default padding.

Socio-historical similarities of metaphorizations in national cultures

In connection with metaphorization in cognitive linguistics, the interchangeable terms "cognitive model" and "cultural model" have appeared at different times, denoting certain knowledge that is acquired and stored as the property of individuals, social groups or cultures. In the cognitive literature, the word "model" is often replaced by the word "domain" (see: Langacker, 1991). However, the second is less suitable, since it does not so successfully reveal the main aspect of metaphorizations, which is that for a metaphor, not only the properties of the individual categories that it connects are important, but also their role in structuring a general model, most often called cognitive. The metaphorical transference thus reflects the structure, internal connections and logic of the cognitive model. Cognitologists have called this transfer "mapping" a source to a target. In other words, from a cognitive point of view, a metaphor is the superposition of the structure of the initial model on the final model. So, for example, such metaphors as “living person - traveler” (She went through life with a good heart), “life goals - destinations” (Doesn't know where he is going in life ) etc. Some authors (see: Lakoff & Johnson, 1980; La-koff, 1987; Lipka, 1988; Lakoff & Turner, 1989) provide lists of typical final and initial models, for example, anger / dangerous beast; dispute / travel; dispute / war, the superposition of which gives metaphors, called "metaphorical concepts" by Lakoff and Johnson. These concepts reflect the most fundamental cultural values, usually at the human level, and therefore are the basis for understanding in communication, self-knowledge, behavior, aesthetic activities and politics.

Basically, metaphorical concepts are "dead", linguistic metaphors, in the depths of which they live and thereby participate in the synchronous-linguistic creation and perception of the image of the world, archetypal forms of consciousness, including personification, symbols, as well as standards like " the measure of all things. " This is evidenced, in particular, by phraseological combinations of the type "motherland-mother", "bring to the altar of the fatherland", where the images are based on the mythologeme of mother-earth and the altar, perceived as a symbol of a sacrificial place. Such combinations cannot be explained on the basis of purely linguistic methods and limitations in the choice of partner words, which determine the reproducibility of such, for example, clichéd and stereotyped combinations as "to die for the motherland, fatherland, fatherland"; "to happen with faith and truth to the motherland, fatherland, fatherland" are based on the personification of these social concepts, as a "holy" female or male deity, to whom they experience holy love, who should be served, for whose sake life is sacrificed, and the like (cf. to die for the state ";" to serve the ministry with faith and truth, "etc.) (see: Telia, 1997, pp. 150-151).

VN Toporov writes about the structure of Dostoevsky's novel "Crime and Punishment" in connection with archaic schemes of mythological thinking (see Toporov, 1995, pp. 193-258). MM Bakhtin wrote about the same in his work "Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics" (1963). The use of such schemes, firstly, allowed the author to write down the entire huge volume of the content plan in the shortest possible way (economy is an important aspect of metaphorization). "Metaphorism is a natural consequence of the fragility of a person and the enormity of his tasks conceived for a long time. With this inconsistency, he is forced to look at things in an eagle's eye and be explained by instant and immediately understandable insights. This is poetry. Metaphorism is a shorthand of a great personality, the cursive of her spirit ... Poems were the fastest and most direct form of Shakespeare's expression. He resorted to them as a means of the fastest recording of thoughts. This went so far that in many of his poetic episodes, rough sketches for prose are seen in verse "(B. Pasternak) ... The organization of a literary text based on the evocation of archetypal images (primodial images) considered as a kind of "sludge" of countless repeated consequences of experience in the toposes of the human soul (psychic residua of numberless experiences of the same types), and the establishment of additional connections pursues the same goals of economy. (Cf .: Jung, 1928; Bodkin, 1958; Meletinsky, 1994, etc.). Secondly, thanks to the schemes of mythological thinking, it is possible to expand the novel space to the utmost, which is connected, first of all, with its significant structural restructuring, which makes it possible to classify "Crime and Punishment" as a single "Petersburg text in Russian literature." All this together largely ensured the deep influence of the novel not only on Russian, but also on world literature.

In recent decades, literary studies such as the "space" of a given literary text, a given writer, direction, "big style", a whole genre, etc. have become common (and even fashionable). Each of these studies presupposes a certain repulsion ("rosiness") from a certain average neutral space and contact - to a greater or lesser extent with specialized, that is, one way or another individualized spaces. Each literary epoch, each major direction (school) builds its own space, but for those within this epoch or directions, "one's own" is evaluated primarily from the point of view of the general, uniting, consolidating and its "individuality" reveals this "one's" only on the periphery , at the junctions with the other that preceded it, accompanies or threatens as its replacement in the near future. A writer who builds "his" space most often takes into account the "common" space positively or negatively and in this sense depends on it. At the same time, the space built in these cases cannot be considered the result of rigid determinism on the part of any factors, excluding the author's plan and his intentions; but these intentions just allow the author to choose the type of space he needs and, if necessary, change it, switch to another type, etc. (see: Toporov, 1995, p. 407).

It can be represented: 1) a direct directive, including with elements of metaphorization, intimization and stylization; 2) a call; 3) an expressive statement; 4) a statement. RYAZ 2003 1 23. Terminology based on metaphorization) by function or emotional [color?] Common words: - to be lifted by the force of the air flow. Zharg. pilots. S. Ozhegov Zap. book // Dictionary 2001 448.

Historical Dictionary gallicisms of the Russian language. - M .: ETS Dictionary Publishing House http://www.ets.ru/pg/r/dict/gall_dict.htm. Nikolay Ivanovich Epishkin [email protected] . 2010 .

See what "metaphorization" is in other dictionaries:

Metaphorization- Acquisition of a word of metaphorical meaning (metaphor) ... Handbook of Etymology and Historical Lexicology

metaphorization- expansion of the semantic volume of a word due to the emergence of figurative meanings in it and the strengthening of its expressive ... Explanatory translation dictionary

Metaphor- (from the Greek μεταφορά transfer) trope or mechanism of speech, consisting in the use of a word denoting a certain class of objects, phenomena, etc., to characterize or name an object belonging to another class, or the name of another ... ... Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary

Artistic speech concretization- - this is a specific property of the artist. speech, distinguishing it from all other types of linguistic communication. It manifests itself in such a deliberately created according to the laws of art, the organization of linguistic means in the speech tissue of the artist. works, ... ... Stylistic Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Russian Language

Language picture of the world- The linguistic picture of the world historically formed in the everyday consciousness of a given linguistic community and reflected in the language a set of ideas about the world, a certain way of perceiving and organizing the world, conceptualizing reality. ... ... Wikipedia

Ontofania of freedom- (from ontos - being, being and phania - manifestation) the implementation of the ontological impulse. In nature as such, without man and his consciousness, knowledge and activity, there is no freedom. There are only causal connections and other determinations. According to Kant ... ... Projective Philosophical Dictionary

MEANING- (reference) 1) The process of translating relevant information (meaning) into conc. sign form (sign or sequence of signs). 2) Activities for the implementation of this process. O. is carried out by means of the language of culture ... ... Encyclopedia of Cultural Studies

METAPHOR- METAPHOR, metaphor (Greek metaphorá), the type of path, the transfer of the properties of one object (phenomenon or aspect of being) to another, according to the principle of their similarity in any respect or in contrast. Unlike a comparison where both terms are present ... ... Literary encyclopedic dictionary

BRIGADE C- The origin of Brigade C, like the Bravo group, should be considered 1979 and the Postscriptum group, where Garik Sukachev and Zhenya Khavtan played together for some time. But in 1983, Sukachev, leaving the song White Day for Khavtan as a gift, left, and after ... Russian rock. Small encyclopedia

Pshibos Julian- Przybo Julian (5.3.1901, Gvoznica, Rzeszow Voivodeship, ≈ 6.10.1970, Warsaw), Polish poet. Graduated from the Jagiellonian University (1924). Published since 1922. In the first collections of poems ("Screws", 1925; "With both hands", 1926) implemented ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

Books

• The creative potential of Russian grammar, Remchukova E.N .. This monograph examines the creative potential of Russian grammar in different types of Russian speech - colloquial, artistic, scientific journalistic, newspaper and journalistic, in ...

The cognitively conditioned perception of the world is manifested in the fact that, firstly, each ethnic group perceives the objective world through the prism of its nationally determined worldview and social experience acquired in the process of implementing specific economic and labor activities in certain natural and geographical conditions of residence; secondly, the objective world is refracted in nationally determined mechanisms of cognition - cognitive models of linguocreative thinking.

Mental or linguocreative activity is an important component of linguistic consciousness. She, according to B.A. Serebrennikov, has a double orientation, since, on the one hand, it reflects surrounding a person reality, on the other hand, is intimately connected with the available resources of the language. Linguocreative thinking, according to B.A. Serebrennikov, is associative thinking. Another of its features is that “in each specific language, it can separate the continuum of the surrounding world in a special way” [Serebrennikov, 1983, 169].

Linguocreative thinking creates an image of the world in each language according to the way of reflections. Linguocreative thinking is the result of reflective-epistemological activity, it operates with associations that are different for speakers of different languages ​​due to different cognitively conditioned perception of the world. This is thinking aimed at "generating" new linguistic entities by transforming (primarily semantic) units already existing in the language. The metaphor is born in the process of semantic transformation - the transfer of the name of one object to another, with which the first object associatively approaches in the process of linguocreative thinking.

A cognitive metaphor models one object in terms of another.

In the cognitive theory of metaphor, it is noted that metaphorization is based on the interaction of two knowledge structures - the cognitive structure - the “source” (source domain) and the cognitive structure of the “target” (target domain). In the process of metaphorization, some areas of the goal are structured according to the image of the source, in other words, “metaphorical mapping” or “cognitive mapping” takes place [Lakoff, Johnson, 2008].

In linguistics, metaphors are grouped thematically. In this case, such metaphors stand out as: 1) animalistic (based on comparison with the animal); 2) anthropomorphic (comparing objects, plants, animals with humans); 3) root metaphors (they name the thematic source zone).

The main ways of metaphorization are:

1) impersonation;

2) the genitive of the metaphor;

3) transfer of a word from one plane to another;

4) the syntactic position of a word is a syntactically determined meaning.

Impersonation is usually considered as a method of endowing objects, plants, animals and natural phenomena with properties, signs of people, such as the gift of speech, the ability to think, to perform certain actions. It is subsumed under an anthropomorphic model that ascribes the properties of an animate being - a person - to inanimate objects, natural phenomena, for example: With a clear smile, nature meets the morning of the year through a dream(A.S. Pushkin), The dormant bell awakened the fields(S. Yesenin).

The genitive of metaphor is a way of metaphorizing when one word in a metaphorical phrase is in the genitive case: flames.

The third way is the transfer of a word from one semantic plane to another, for example: terms in the literary language acquire a new meaning: orbital pulse, fraction, range and etc.

The fourth way is syntactically determined meaning. VV Vinogradov in his work "The main types of lexical meanings of a word" considers this concept as "a peculiar type of meanings of a syntactically determined nature, it is formed in words, which are assigned a strictly defined function as part of a sentence" [Vinogradov, 1978]. Indeed, nouns in derived evaluative meanings are used mainly in predicative positions, with the position of the predicate in the first place, for example: “Although she is not beautiful, she is by nature - gold: kind, soft and clean ”(G. Nikolaev); “... two words can be incredibly powerful, but four words are already water". (K. Paustovsky).

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Introduction

1. Metaphor as a way of expressiveness of speech in fiction

1.1 Artistic speech style

Conclusions for Chapter 1

Chapter 2. A Practical Study of Metaphor on the Example of Charles Dickens' Great Expectations

Conclusions on chapter 2

Conclusion

Bibliography

V conducting

Metaphor is a universal phenomenon in language. Its universality manifests itself in space and time, in the structure of language and in functioning. It is inherent in all languages ​​and in all ages; it covers different aspects of the language. In linguistic science, the problem of metaphor - both as a process of creating new meanings of linguistic expressions in the course of their rethinking, and as a ready-made metaphorical meaning - has long been considered. There is an extensive literature on this topic. Work on the study of metaphor continues to this day. In linguistics, various directions that study metaphor are considered.

The research of the metaphor in artistic speech is the subject of the scientific research of I.R. "Stylistics of the English language: Textbook (on English language) ", Arnold I.V. “Stylistics. Modern English ", Gurevich V.V. "English Stylistics (stylistics of the English language)", Koksharova N. F. "Stylistics: textbook. manual for universities (in English) ", and also Igoshina T. S." Metaphor as a means of artistic expression of poster art "(2009), Kurash S. B. (Mozyr)" Metaphor as a dialogue: to the problem of intertext ", etc. ...

The relevance of this research topic is dictated by the increased interest of domestic and foreign linguists to the problem of metaphor.

The theoretical basis for this study was the work of such scientists as T.Yu. Vinokurova. (2009), Galperin I.R. (2014), Shakhovsky V.I. (2008), I.B. Golub (2010). Scientific articles, textbooks and teaching aids on the stylistics of the Russian and English languages ​​were used as sources for the analysis of theoretical material on this problem.

The object of the research is the sphere of action of means of expressiveness of expression in artistic speech.

The subject is metaphor as a pictorial - expressive means of the language of fiction, its types and functions.

The goal is to investigate the features of metaphors as pictorial and expressive means of the language of the style of fiction.

To achieve this goal, the following tasks were set:

1) consider the metaphor as a way of expressiveness of the speech of fiction;

2) describe the artistic style of speech;

3) analyze the types of metaphors;

4) describe the functioning of metaphors in modern Russian and English. metaphor art style artwork

The work consists of an Introduction, two main chapters and a Conclusion. The first chapter "Metaphor as a way of expressiveness of speech in fiction" is devoted to the consideration of the concepts of the artistic style of speech, metaphor, its essence and functions, in the second "A practical study of metaphor on the example of Charles Dickens' work" Great Expectations "", a study of the functioning of metaphors in the work is carried out.

The methodological basis in accordance with the set goal and objectives of the work is the method of continuous sampling, based on the identification of metaphors in the work, the observation method, as well as the descriptive-analytical method.

1. Metaphor as a way of expressiveness of speech in fiction

1.1 Artistic speech style

The stylistics of artistic speech is a special section of stylistics. The stylistics of artistic speech clarifies the ways of artistic use of language, combining aesthetic and communicative functions in it. The features of a literary text, methods of constructing different types of the author's narration and methods of reflecting the elements of speech of the described environment in it, methods of constructing a dialogue, the functions of different stylistic layers of language in artistic speech, the principles of selecting linguistic means, their transformation in fiction, etc. [ Kazakova, Mahlerwein, Paradise, Frick, 2009: 7]

The peculiarities of the artistic style, as a rule, include imagery, emotionality of presentation; extensive use of vocabulary and phraseology of other styles; use of pictorial and expressive means. The main characteristic of fictional speech is the aesthetically justified use of the entire spectrum of linguistic means in order to express the writer's artistic world, which gives aesthetic pleasure to the reader [Kazakova, Mahlerwein, Rayskaya, Frick, 2009: 17].

According to L.M. Raiskaya, writers in the work on their works of art use all the resources, all the wealth of the Russian national language to create impressive artistic images. These are not only literary linguistic means, but also folk dialects, urban vernacular, jargon and even argot. Therefore, according to the author, most researchers believe that it is impossible to talk about the existence of a special style of fiction: fiction is "omnivorous" and takes from the Russian common language everything that the author considers necessary [Rayskaya, 2009: 15].

Artistic style is the style of works of fiction.

The peculiarities of the artistic style can also be called the use of the whole variety of linguistic means to create the imagery and expressiveness of the work. The function of the artistic style is the aesthetic function [Vinokurova, 2009: 57].

The artistic style as a functional style finds application in fiction, which performs figurative, cognitive and ideological and aesthetic functions. To understand the peculiarities of the artistic way of cognizing reality, thinking, which determines the specifics of artistic speech, it is necessary to compare it with the scientific way of knowing, which determines the characteristic features of scientific speech [Vinokurova, 2009: 57].

Fiction, like other types of art, is characterized by a concrete-figurative representation of life, in contrast to an abstracted, logical-conceptual, objective reflection of reality in scientific speech. A work of art is characterized by perception through feelings and the re-creation of reality, the author seeks to convey, first of all, his personal experience, their understanding and comprehension of this or that phenomenon [Vinokurova, 2009: 57].

For the artistic style of speech, attention is typical to the particular and the casual, followed by the typical and general. For example, in “Dead Souls” by N. V. Gogol, each of the landowners shown personified certain specific human qualities, expressed a certain type, and all together they were the “face” of the contemporary author of Russia [Vinokurova, 2009: 57].

The world of fiction is a "re-created" world, the depicted reality is, to a certain extent, the author's fiction, therefore, in the artistic style of speech, the subjective moment plays the main role. All surrounding reality is presented through the vision of the author. But in the literary text, we see not only the world of the writer, but also the writer in the artistic world: his preferences, condemnation, admiration, rejection, etc. This is associated with emotionality and expressiveness, metaphor, meaningful versatility of the artistic style of speech [Galperin, 2014: 250].

The lexical composition and functioning of words in the artistic style of speech have their own characteristics. The words that form the basis and create the imagery of this style include, first of all, the figurative means of the Russian literary language, as well as words of a wide range of use, realizing their meaning in the context. Highly specialized words are used to an insignificant extent, only to create artistic credibility when describing certain aspects of life [Galperin, 2014: 250].

The artistic style of speech is characterized by the use of verbal polysemy of the word, which opens up additional meanings and semantic shades in it, as well as synonyms at all linguistic levels, which makes it possible to emphasize the subtlest shades of meanings. This is due to the fact that the author strives to use all the riches of the language, to create his own unique language and style, to a bright, expressive, figurative text. The author uses not only the vocabulary of the codified literary language, but also a variety of pictorial means from colloquial speech and vernacular [Galperin, 2014: 250].

Emotionality and expressiveness of the image in a literary text are in the first place. Many words, which in scientific speech appear as clearly defined abstract concepts, in newspaper-publicistic speech - as socially generalized concepts, in artistic speech - as concrete-sensory representations. Thus, the styles complement each other functionally. For artistic speech, especially poetic, inversion is characteristic, that is, a change in the usual order of words in a sentence in order to enhance the semantic significance of a word or to give the entire phrase a special stylistic coloring. Variants of the author's word order are varied, subordinate to the general idea. For example: " I see everything Pavlovsk hilly... ”(Akhmatova) [Galperin, 2014: 250].

In artistic speech, deviations from structural norms are also possible, due to artistic actualization, that is, the selection by the author of some thought, idea, feature that is important for the meaning of the work. They can be expressed in violation of phonetic, lexical, morphological and other norms [Galperin, 2014: 250].

As a means of communication, artistic speech has its own language - a system of figurative forms, expressed by linguistic and extralinguistic means. Artistic speech, along with non-fiction, performs a nominative-pictorial function.

Languagesmipeculiarityyamiartistic style of speechare:

1. The heterogeneity of the lexical composition: a combination of book vocabulary with colloquial, vernacular, dialectal, etc.

Feather grass has ripened. For many miles the steppe was dressed in swaying silver. The wind elastically accepted him, surging, rough, bumped, drove now to the south, now to the west, gray-opal waves. Where the flowing air stream ran, the feather grass sloped in prayer, and a blackening path lay for a long time on its gray ridge.

2. The use of all layers of Russian vocabulary in order to realize the aesthetic function.

Daria to ushesitated for a minute and refused:

- Hno, no, I'm alone. I'm alone there.

Where "tuda" - she did not know even close and, leaving the gate, went to the Angara. (V. Rasputin)

3. Activity of polysemantic words of all styles of speech.

Burlitthe river is laced with white foam.

Poppies are crimson on the velvet of the meadows.

Frost was born at dawn. (M. Prishvin).

4. Combinatorial increments of meaning.

Words in an artistic context receive a new semantic and emotional content, which embodies the imaginative thought of the author.

I was dreaming of catching shadows that leave,

Fading shadows of a dying day.

I climbed the tower. And the steps trembled.

And the steps trembled under my foot (K. Balmont)

5. The use of more specific vocabulary than abstract.

Sergei pushed the heavy door. The porch step sobbed under his foot. Two more steps - and he is already in the garden.

The cool evening air was filled with the intoxicating scent of acacia blossoms. Somewhere in the branches, a nightingale was iridescent and subtly drawing out its trills.

6. Wide use of folk poetry words, emotional and expressive vocabulary, synonyms, antonyms.

The dog rose has probably made its way along the trunk to the young aspen since spring, and now, when the time has come to celebrate its name day for the aspen, all of it flashed with red fragrant wild roses. (M. Prishvin).

New time was located in Ertelev Lane. I said "fit." This is not the right word. It reigned, reigned. (G. Ivanov)

7. Verb speech

The writer names each movement (physical and / or mental) and state change in stages. The pumping of verbs activates the reader's tension.

Gregory went down to Don, carefully climbed through the fence of the Astakhovsky base, came up to the shuttered window. He heard only frequent heartbeats ... Quiet knocked in the binding of the frame ... Aksinya silently came up to the window, peered. He saw how she pressed to the chest of the hand and heard an indistinct moan escaping her lips. Gregory is familiar showed her opened window, stripped off rifle. Aksinya flung open sash. He became on the heap, Aksin's bare hands grabbed his neck. They are so trembled and fought on his shoulders, those dear hands that tremble passed on and Gregory. (M. A. Sholokhov "Quiet Don")

The imagery and aesthetic significance of each element of the artistic style (up to sounds) are dominant. Hence the desire for freshness of the image, unbroken expressions, a large number of tropes, special artistic (corresponding to reality) accuracy, the use of special expressive means of speech characteristic only for this style - rhythm, rhyme, even in prose [Koksharova, 2009: 85].

In the artistic style of speech, in addition to the linguistic means typical for it, the means of all other styles are used, especially the spoken one. In the language of fiction, vernaculars and dialectisms, words of a high, poetic style, slang, rude words, professional business turns of speech, journalism can be used. However, all these means in the artistic style of speech obey its main function - the aesthetic one [Koksharova, 2009: 85].

If the spoken style of speech mainly performs the function of communication (communicative), the scientific and official-business - the function of the message (informative), then the artistic style of speech is intended to create artistic, poetic images, emotionally aesthetic impact. All linguistic means included in a work of art change their primary function, obey the tasks of a given artistic style [Koksharova, 2009: 85].

In literature, the artist of a word - a poet, a writer - finds, then the only necessary placement of the necessary words in order to correctly, accurately, figuratively express thoughts, convey a plot, character, make the reader empathize with the heroes of the work, enter the world created by the author [Koksharova, 2009: 85] ...

All this is available only to the language of fiction, therefore it has always been considered the pinnacle of the literary language. The best in the language, its strongest capabilities and the rarest beauty are in the works of fiction, and all this is achieved by the artistic means of the language [Koksharova, 2009: 85].

The means of artistic expression are varied and numerous. These are tropes such as epithets, similes, metaphors, hyperboles, etc. [Shakhovsky, 2008: 63]

Paths are a turn of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense in order to achieve greater artistic expressiveness. The path is based on a comparison of two concepts that seem to be close to our consciousness in some way. The most common types of tropes are allegory, hyperbole, irony, litota, metaphor, metonymy, personification, periphrasis, synecdoche, comparison, epithet [Shakhovsky, 2008: 63].

For example: What are you howling about, vetep night, what are you madly complaining about- impersonation. All flags will visit us- synecdoche. Little man with a marigold, a boy with a finger- litota. Well, eat a plate, my dear- metonymy, etc.

The expressive means of language also include stylistic figures of speech or just figures of speech: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion, polyunion, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora. The means of artistic expression also include rhythm (poetry and prose), rhyme, intonation [Shakhovsky, 2008: 63].

Thus, the style of fiction, as a special section of stylistics, is characterized by imagery, emotionality of presentation; extensive use of vocabulary and phraseology of other styles; the use of pictorial and expressive means.

1.2 The essence of metaphor and its function

The classification of tropes, assimilated by lexical stylistics, goes back to ancient rhetoric, as well as the corresponding terminology [Golub, 2010: 32].

The traditional definition of metaphor is associated with an etymological explanation of the term itself: a metaphor (gr. Metaphorb - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one subject to another based on their similarity. However, linguists define metaphor as a semantic phenomenon; caused by overlapping direct meaning words of an additional meaning, which for this word becomes the main one in the context of a work of art. Moreover, the direct meaning of the word serves only as a basis for the author's associations [Golub, 2010: 32].

The basis of metaphorization can be based on the similarity of the most diverse attributes of objects: color, shape, volume, purpose, position in space and time, etc. Aristotle also noted that making good metaphors means noticing similarities. The artist's observant eye finds common features in almost everything. The unexpectedness of such comparisons gives the metaphor a special expressiveness: The sun beams down into a plumb line(Fet); And the golden autumn ... cries with foliage on the sand(Yesenin); The night rushed outside the windows, then swinging open with a swift white fire, then shrinking into impenetrable darkness(Paustovsky).

V.V. Gurevich also defines a metaphor as a transfer of meaning based on similarity, in other words, an implicit comparison: He is not a man, he is just a machine- he is not a man, he is a machine,the childhood of mankind - childhood of humanity, a film star- movie star, etc. [Gurevich V.V., 2008: 36].

Not only objects are subject to transfer in a metaphor, but also actions, phenomena and qualities of something: Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to chewed and digested (F. Bacon) - Some books are tasted, others are swallowed, and only a few are chewed and digested .; pitiless cold- merciless cold; cruel heat- merciless heat; virgin soil- virgin land (soil); a treacherous calm- treacherously calm [Gurevich V.V., 2008: 36] .

According to V.V. Gurevich, metaphors can be simple, i.e. expressed by a word or phrase: Man cannot live by bread alone- man does not live by bread alone(in the meaning of satisfying not only physical needs, but also spiritual ones), as well as complex (elongated, permanent), which require a broader context to understand. For example:

The average New Yorker is caught in a machine. He whirls along, he is dizzy, he is helpless. If he resists, the machine will crush him to pieces.(W. Frank) - The average New Yorker is in a trap car. He is spinning in her, feeling unwell, he is helpless. If he resists this mechanism, he will cut it into pieces. In this example, metaphor is manifested in the concept of a big city as a powerful and dangerous machine [Gurevich VV, 2008: 37].

Metaphorical transfer of a name also occurs when a word develops on the basis of the main, nominative meaning of the derived meaning ( chair back, door handle). However, in these so-called linguistic metaphors, the image is absent, which makes them fundamentally different from poetic ones [Golub, 2010: 32].

In stylistics, it is necessary to distinguish between the individual author's metaphors that are created by word artists for a specific speech situation ( I want to listen to a sensual blizzard under a blue gaze... - Yesenin), and anonymous metaphors that became the property of the language ( spark of feeling, storm of passions etc.). The individual author's metaphors are very expressive, the possibilities of creating them are inexhaustible, just as the possibilities of revealing the similarity of various features of the compared objects, actions, states are unlimited. Golub I.B. argues that even ancient authors admitted that “there is no more brilliant trope that communicates more vivid images to speech than a metaphor” [Golub, 2010: 32].

Both basic types of full-valued words - the names of objects and designations of signs - are capable of metaphorizing meaning. The more descriptive (multi-sign) and diffuse the meaning of a word is, the easier it gets metaphorical meanings. Among nouns, first of all, the names of objects and natural genders are metaphorized, and among feature words - words expressing physical qualities and mechanical actions. The metaphorization of meanings is largely due to the picture of the world of native speakers, that is, folk symbolism and current ideas about realities (figurative meanings of words such as raven, black, right, left, pure, etc.).

Designating properties that already have a name in the language, a figurative metaphor, on the one hand, gives the language synonyms, and on the other hand, enriches words with figurative meanings.

There are a number of general patterns of metaphorization of the meaning of attribute words:

1) the physical attribute of an object is transferred to a person and contributes to the isolation and designation of the mental properties of a person ( dull, sharp, soft, wide etc.);

2) an attribute of an object is transformed into an attribute of an abstract concept (superficial judgment, empty words, time flows);

3) a sign or action of a person refers to objects, natural phenomena, abstract concepts (the principle of anthropomorphism: the storm is crying, weary day, time is running out and etc.);

4) signs of nature and natural childbirth are transferred to humans (cf. windy weather and a windy man, a fox covers his tracks and a man covers his tracks).

The processes of metaphorization, therefore, often proceed in opposite directions: from man to nature, from nature to man, from inanimate to animate and from living to inanimate.

A metaphor finds its natural place in poetic (in a broad sense) speech, in which it serves an aesthetic purpose. The metaphor is related to poetic discourse by the following features: inseparability of image and meaning, rejection of the accepted taxonomy of objects, actualization of distant and “random” connections, diffuseness of meaning, admission of different interpretations, lack of motivation, appeal to imagination, choice of the shortest path to the essence of the object.

Metaphor translated from Greek means carryover... This very ancient technique has been used in spells, legends, proverbs and sayings. In their work, writers and poets often use it.

A metaphor should be understood as the use of a word or phrase in a figurative sense. Thus, the author gives some individual coloring to his thoughts, expresses them in a more sophisticated way. Metaphors help poets to more accurately describe the events taking place, the image and thoughts of the hero.

It exists as a solitary metaphor (for example, the sounds are melting, the grass and branches were crying), and spread over several lines ( As soon as the yard guard barks, Yes, the ringing chain rattles(Pushkin)).

In addition to the usual metaphors, it should be said that there are also hidden ones. They are difficult to find, you need to feel what the author wanted to say and how he did it.

Some metaphors have firmly entered our vocabulary, we often hear and use them ourselves in everyday life: children flowers of life, diary student face, hanging by a thread, simple as five cents etc. Using these expressions, we give a capacious, colorful meaning to what has been said.

A metaphor is a hidden comparison built on the similarity or contrast of phenomena ( A bee for a tribute to the field flies from a wax cell(Pushkin)).

Metaphor is a turn of speech, the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense ( gold strand, curbstone

(about a person), a constellation of journalists, a herd of cornflowers, etc..) [Kazakova, Mahlerwein, Rayskaya, Frick, 2009: 61]

Metaphor increases the accuracy of poetic speech and its emotional expressiveness.

There are the following types of metaphor:

1. lexical metaphor, or erased, in which the direct meaning is completely absent; it's raining, time is running, clock hand, doorknob;

2.a simple metaphor - built on the convergence of objects according to one common feature: hail of bullets, the sound of waves, the dawn of life, the leg of the table, the dawn is blazing;

3.implemented metaphor - literal understanding of the meanings of the words that make up the metaphor, emphasizing the direct meanings of words: But you don't have a face on - you only have a shirt and trousers on.(S. Sokolov).

4.developed metaphor - the spread of the metaphorical image to several phrases or to the entire work ( He could not sleep for a long time: the remaining husk of words clogged and tormented his brain, pricked in his temples, there was no way to get rid of it(V. Nabokov).

Erased metaphors, according to Halperin, are concepts worn out by time and well taken root in the language: a ray of hope is a ray of hope, floods of tears are streams of tears, a storm of indignation is a storm of indignation, a flight of fancy is a flight of fantasy, a gleam of mirth is a flash of joy, a shadow of a smile is a shadow of a smile, etc. [Halperin, 2014: 142].

V.V. Gurevich defines an erased metaphor as having been used for too long in speech, thus losing its freshness of expression. Such metaphors often become idiomatic (phraseological) expressions, which are then recorded in dictionaries: seeds of evil- the seed of evil,a rooted prejudice- ingrained bias,in the heat of argument- in a heated argument,to burn with desire- to burn with desire,to fish for compliments - fish for compliments , to prick one" s ears- to pierce ears [Gurevich V.V., 2008: 37] .

Arnold I.V. also highlights a hyperbolic metaphor, that is, one based on exaggeration. For example:

All days are nights to see till I see thee,

And nights bright days when dreams do show thee me.

A day without you seemed like a night to me

And I saw the day at night in a dream.

Here the example means days like dark nights, which is a poetic exaggeration [Arnold, 2010: 125].

Also in the English language there are so-called traditional metaphors, i.e. generally accepted in any period or literary direction, for example, when describing the appearance: pearly teeth - a pearly smile, coral lips - coral lips (lips of coral color), ivory neck - smooth as ivory, neck, hair of golden wire - golden hair (gold colored) [Arnold, 2010: 126].

The metaphor is usually expressed by a noun, a verb, and then other parts of speech.

According to I.R. Halperin, the identification (assimilation) of a concept should not be equated with the similarity of meaning: Dear Nature is the kindest mother still - Nature is the kindest mother (Byron). In this case, there is an interaction between the vocabulary and contextual logical meaning based on the similarity of the features of the two corresponding concepts. Nature is compared to a mother, for her attitude towards man. The concern is assumed, but not directly established [Halperin, 2014: 140].

The similarity can be seen more clearly when the metaphor is embodied in an attributive word, for example, voiceless sounds - silent voices, or in a predicative combination of words: Mother Nature [Galperin, 2014: 140].

But the similarity of different phenomena will not be so easy to perceive due to the lack of explanation. For example: In the slanting beams that streamed through the open doorway the dust danced and was golden - Slanting sun rays poured into the open door, golden dust particles danced in them (O. Wilde) [Halperin, 2014: 140]. In this case, the movement of the dust particles seems to the author to be harmonious, like dance movements [Galperin, 2014: 140].

Sometimes the process of similarity is very difficult to decode. For example, if a metaphor is embodied in an adverb: The leaves fell sorrowfully - the leaves are sad. They fell [Galperin, 2014: 140].

Along with the epithet, synecdoche, metonymy, paraphrase and other tropes, Metaphor is the application of a word (phrase) to an object (concept), to which the given word (phrase) has literally nothing to do; used to compare with another word or concept. For example: A mighty Fortress is our God- a mighty fortress is our God.[Znamenskaya, 2006: 39].

The nature of metaphor is controversial.

Metaphor, as one of the most significant tropes, has rich manifestations and various forms of embodiment in many spheres of social, creative and scientific activity of modern man. A comprehensive and interested study of metaphor is of interest both for the sciences studying language, speech and literary language, considering metaphor as an artistic device, or a means of creating an expressive image, and for art history [Igoshina, 2009: 134].

The sacrament of metaphor, its consistency with the expressive and emotional nature of poetic speech, with the consciousness and perception of a person - all this attracted thinkers, humanitarians, cultural and art workers - Aristotle, J.-J. Rousseau, Hegel, F. Nietzsche and other researchers [Igoshin, 2009: 134].

The properties of metaphor, such as poetry, imagery, sensuality, which it brings into speech and literary work, like other tropes, are based on the ability of human consciousness to compare [Igoshina, 2009: 134].

Kurash S.B. identifies three types of metaphors, depending on the way they implement the "principle of comparison", according to which any comparative trope is built:

1) comparison metaphors, in which the described object is directly compared with another object ( grove colonnade);

2) metaphors-riddles in which the described object is replaced by another

object ( beat the hooves on the keys frozen where frozen keys =

cobblestone; winter carpet= snow);

3) metaphors attributing to the described object the properties of another object ( venomous look, life burned out) [Kurash, 2001: 10-11].

Let us characterize in more detail the above-named ways of functioning of the metaphor in a poetic text.

First, a metaphor can form a textual segment that is structurally local and semantic peripheral. In this case, as a rule, the context of the trope is localized within a phrase or one or two sentences and the same number of lines of poetry; in relatively large texts, the context of the trope can be more extended. This metaphor can be called local. An example is a metaphorical sentence: Insomnia went to others- nurse(Akhmatova), My voice is weak, but my will does not weaken... [Kurash, 2001: 44].

The structural and semantic core of the text can be represented in the form of a certain general proposition derived from the generalization of the central subjects of speech and their predicates contained in the text. For the text under consideration, it can be represented as follows: the heroine gets used to loss of love... In relation to the given semantic core of the text, the segment

Insomnia went to others- nurse is nothing more than one of its concretizers, localized within one sentence and not finding further development [Kurash, 2001: 44].

The next case is the fulfillment of the role of one of the key structural-semantic and ideological-figurative elements of the text by the metaphor.

A metaphor localized in a text fragment can realize one of the central or even the central micro-theme of the text, entering into the closest figurative-thematic and lexical-semantic connections with a non-metaphorical segment of the text. This way of functioning of a metaphor is especially characteristic of large-volume texts (prose works, poems, etc.), where often there are not one, but several figurative-metaphorical fragments that interact distantly, revealing at the same time one of the micro-themes of the text and being included, thus, among the factors of text formation as a means of ensuring the integrity and coherence of the text [Kurash, 2001: 44].

As you can see, the main feature of such texts in relation to metaphor is their rather clear division into non-metaphorical and metaphorical segments [Kurash, 2001: 44].

Metaphoricity can be viewed as one of the particular manifestations of such a universal aesthetic category of poetic texts as their harmonious organization [Kurash, 2001: 45].

Finally, a metaphor is capable of functioning as a structural and semantic basis, a way of constructing entire poetic texts. In this case, we can talk about the actual text-forming function of the trail, which leads to the appearance of texts, the boundaries of which coincide with the boundaries of the trail. In relation to such poetic texts in the specialized literature, the term “text-trope” is adopted, among them texts are also distinguished [Kurash, 2001: 48].

Metaphors, like other means of verbal imagery, have unequal functional activity in different spheres of communication. As you know, the main area of ​​application of figurative means is fiction. In fictional prose, in poetry, metaphors serve to create an image, to enhance the figurativeness and expressiveness of speech, to convey evaluative and emotionally expressive meanings.

The metaphor has two main functions - the function characterizing and function nominations individuals and classes of objects. In the first case, the noun takes the place of a taxonomic predicate, in the second - a subject or other actant.

The starting point for metaphor is the characterization function. The meaning of the metaphor is limited to the indication of one or a few signs.

The use of the metaphor in the actant position is secondary. In Russian, it is supported by a demonstrative pronoun: This vobla lives on the estate of his ex-wife(Chekhov).

Asserting itself in the nominative function, the metaphor loses its figurativeness: "the neck of a bottle", "pansies", "marigolds". The nominalization of metaphorical sentences, in which the metaphor turns into a nominal position, gives rise to one of the types of genius metaphor: "envy is a poison" - "the poison of envy", as well as: wine of love, stars of eyes, worm of doubt etc.

It is also possible to single out the representative, informational, ornamental, predictive and explanatory, saving (saving speech efforts) and figuratively visual functions of metaphor.

One of the functions of a metaphor is cognitive function. According to this function, metaphors are divided into secondary (secondary) and basic (key). The former define the concept of a specific object (the concept of conscience as "Clawed beast"), the latter determine the way of thinking about the world (picture of the world) or its fundamental parts ( “The whole world is a theater, and we are its actors»).

Thus, a metaphor is the transfer of a name from one subject to another on the basis of their similarity. Allocate lexical, simple, realized, detailed metaphors. The metaphor is divided into three types: metaphors-comparison, metaphors-riddles metaphors, attributing to the described object the properties of another object.

Conclusions for Chapter 1

The style of fiction, as a special section of stylistics, is characterized by imagery, emotionality of presentation, as well as the wide use of vocabulary and phraseology of other styles; the use of pictorial and expressive means. The main function of this style of speech is the aesthetic function. This style is used in fiction, performing figurative, cognitive and ideological and aesthetic functions.

We have established that the means of artistic expression are tropes - epithets, comparisons, metaphors, hyperboles, etc.

Among the linguistic features of the artistic style, we have identified the heterogeneity of the lexical composition, the use of polysemantic words of all stylistic varieties of speech, also the use of specific vocabulary instead of abstract, the use of folk-poetic words, emotional and expressive vocabulary, synonyms, antonyms, etc.

Metaphor, as a stylistic device, is the transfer of a name from one subject to another on the basis of their similarity. Different scholars distinguish lexical, simple, realized, detailed metaphors. In this chapter, the metaphor is divided into three types: metaphors-comparison, metaphors-riddles metaphors, attributing the properties of another object to the described object.

Metaphors serve to create an image, enhance the figurativeness and expressiveness of speech, convey evaluative and emotionally expressive meanings.

The functions of the metaphor are discussed in detail. These include the cognitive function, the characterization function and the nomination function, etc. The text-forming function is also highlighted.

Chapter 2. A practical study of metaphor on the example of the work of Charles Dickens "Great Expectations"

For the study, we selected and studied examples of metaphors in the work of Charles Dickens "Great Expectations", which are of direct interest in our study, expressing in their semantic load the evaluative characteristics of objects or phenomena, the expression and imagery of speech.

The work on the practical part of this study was carried out on the work of Charles Dickens "Great Expectations".

Metaphors were written out and analyzed from the work, expressing the evaluative characteristics of objects or phenomena, the expression and imagery of speech.

Charles Dickens' novel Great Expectations first saw the light of day in 1860. In it, the English prose writer raised and criticized the problem of social and psychological disunity between high society and ordinary working people, which was important for his time.

Great Expectations is also an upbringing novel, as it tells several stories of the formation of young personalities at once.

At the center of the narrative is Philip Pirrip or Pip - a former blacksmith's apprentice, receiving a gentleman's education. The love of his life - Estella - the daughter of a murderer and an escaped convict, from the age of three she was raised by Miss Havisham as a lady. Best friend Pipa, Herbert Pocket - comes from a noble family, who decided to connect his life with a simple girl Clara, the daughter of a disabled drunkard, and honest work in the framework of commercial activities. Country girl Biddy, striving for knowledge from childhood, is a simple and kind teacher at school, a faithful wife, a loving mother.

Pip's character is shown over time in Great Expectations. The boy is constantly changing under the influence of external factors, the main of which is his love for Estella. At the same time, the main "core" of Pip's nature remains unchanged. The hero tries to return to his natural kindness throughout the entire time of his gentlemanly training.

The humorous component of the novel is expressed in caustic, critical remarks expressed by Pip in relation to certain events, places or people. With inimitable humor, Pip also describes the disgusting production of Hamlet, which he is watching once in London.

Realistic features in Great Expectations can be seen both in the social conditioning of the characters' characters and in the descriptions of the small town of Pip and the huge, dirty London.

It is worth noting that in the novels of Charles Dickens there are many rhetorical expressions such as comparison and metaphor, which are widely used by the author to delineate in detail the physical characteristics or distinctive personality traits of different characters. In Great Expectations, Dickens uses metaphor to describe all the traits of characters or objects more vividly and figuratively. Metaphor plays an essential role not only for describing individual characters in a colorful or comical way, but also for emphasizing the human and inhuman nature of these characters in society in comparison with other living beings or artificial objects. Also, Dickens makes an attempt to make associations between a person and an object in the mind of the reader.

Let's analyze the use of metaphor using the example of a book.

1. - A ghost-seeing effect in Joe "s own counseling informed me that Herbert had entered the room. So, I presented Joe to Herbert, who held out his hand; but Joe backed from it, and held on by the bird" s-nest Joe had such an expression in his eyes as if he had seen the spirit himself, and I realized that Herbert had entered the room. I introduced them, and Herbert held out his hand to Joe, but he backed away from her, clinging tightly to his nest. » ... Joe protects his hat like a nest with eggs (214). In this example, there is one figurative-metaphorical fragment. The metaphor is lexical. The metaphor acts as a characterization function.

2. "Pooh!" said he, sluicing his face, and speaking through the water-drops; "it" s nothing, Pip. I like that Spider though." - “Pfu! - He exhaled forcefully, collecting water in his palms and burying his face in them. “It's nothing, Pip. A Spider I liked" . In this example, there is one figurative-metaphorical fragment. Spider Mr. Jaggers calls Mr. Drummell, indicating his cunning disposition and vile nature. This lexical metaphor acts as a nomination.

3. When I had lain awake a little while, those extraordinary voices with which silence teems began to make themselves audible. The closet whispered, the fireplace sighed, the little washing-stand ticked, and one guitar-string played occasionally in the chest of drawers. At about the same time, the eyes on the wall acquired a new expression, and in every one of those staring rounds I saw written, DON "T GO HOME- “Some time passed, and I began to distinguish outlandish voices, which are usually filled with the silence of the night: a cabinet in the corner whispered something, the fireplace sighed, the tiny washbasin ticked like a lame clock, and in the chest of drawers a lonely guitar string occasionally began to ring. At about the same time, the eyes on the wall took on a new expression, and in each of these light circles the inscription appeared: "Do not go home." ... Description of impressions from spending the night at the Hammams Hotel. The metaphor is simple and detailed, spread over several lines. Metaphor acts as a characterization function

4. It was like pushing the chair itself back into the past, when we began the old slow circuit round about the ashes of the bridal feast. But, in the funereal room, with that figure of the grave fallen back in the chair fixing its eyes upon her, Estella looked more bright and beautiful than before, and I was under stronger enchantment“The chair seemed to have rolled back into the past, as soon as we, as happened, slowly set off around the remnants of the wedding feast. But in this funeral room, under the gaze of a living deceased sitting in an armchair, Estella seemed even more dazzling and more beautiful, and I was even more fascinated by her. " In this example, the author describes the old, grotesque appearance of Miss Havisham falling into a chair in a faded wedding dress. In this case, the context trail funeral room localized within the phrase. The metaphor is realized and acts as a characterization function.

5. I might have been an unfortunate little bull in a Spanish arena, I got so smartingly touched up by these moral goads- "And I, like an unfortunate bull in the arena of the Spanish circus, painfully felt the pricks of these verbal spears." Here Pip compares himself to a bull in the arena of a Spanish circus. In this example, there is one figurative-metaphorical fragment. This realized metaphor is a comparison. The metaphor acts as a characterization function.

6. When I was first hired out as shepherd t" other side the world, it" s my belief I should ha" turned into a molloncolly- mad sheep myself, if I hadn" t a had my smoke. - “When I was there, at the end of the world, was assigned to graze sheep, I probably myself would have turned into a sheep from melancholy, if not to smoke » ... The structural and semantic core of this example text is presented in the form

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